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There are substantial differences in carbon footprints across households. This study applied an environmentally extended multiregional input–output approach to estimate household carbon footprints for 12 different income groups of China’s 30 regions. Subsequently, carbon footprint Gini coefficients were calculated to measure carbon inequality for households across provinces. We found that the top 5% of income earners were responsible for 17% of the national household carbon footprint in 2012, while the bottom half of income earners caused only 25%. Carbon inequality declined with economic growth in China across space and time in two ways: first, carbon footprints showed greater convergence in the wealthier coastal regions than in the poorer inland regions; second, China’s national carbon footprint Gini coefficients declined from 0.44 in 2007 to 0.37 in 2012. We argue that economic growth not only increases income levels but also contributes to an overall reduction in carbon inequality in China.

The societal and economic losses due to compound extremes, i.e., extreme events often result from one extreme state or amplification due to many other contributing mild or extreme states, are manifold higher in magnitude compared to the impacts of those from individual extremes alone. To understand the future impact of compound flood events at different spatio-temporal aggregation levels and climate zones, i.e., mountains, flood plains, and coasts, it is inevitable to examine the mechanisms of compound floods. To this end, this thesis highlights the importance of an integrated process-based physical modelling approach (atmospheric, hydrological and hydrodynamic) for the proper investigation of future flood risk. The research described in this thesis cover several relevant topics related to a complete flood risk chain (from mountains to coasts) and their impact on water resources in regions around the world (i.e., Europe and Asia). First part of this thesis focuses on empirical, univariate and bivariate approaches to understand historical climate trends and associated hazards in data scarce High Mountain Asia (HMA). This study provides a concise overiew of climate related changes across different regions which were difficult to align and compare either due to use of different data or spatio-temporal scales. Analysis reveals while the temperature is consistently increasing at a higher rate than the global warming rate, precipitation changes are not uniform, with substantial temporal and spatial variation in particular for the higher altitudes of HMA. Changes in climatic variables give rise to nonlinear, non-stationary, and non-uniform responses of cryospheric and hydrological variables such as snow, glaciers, soil moisture, and groundwater. Therefore, second part of this thesis investigates the systemic effect of the compound occurrence of extreme precipitation and temperature, at a wide range of spatio-temporal scales, and their impacts on the seasonality and trends in total water availability for HMA using a high-resolution cryospheric-hydrological model. This study shows a shift in the magnitude and peak of water availability, at seasonal time scale, to earlier in the year due to earlier onset of melting. Analysis reveals that the contrasting responses of HMA's rivers are primarily dictated by their hydrological regimes. To understand the risk due to compound floods in coastal regions, the third study of this thesis investigates the possibility of finding near-simultaneous storm surge and extreme river discharge along the Dutch coast using an extended dataset derived from a storm surge model and two hydrological river-discharge models forced with conditions from a high-resolution regional climate model in ensemble mode. This study conceptually shows that a strong storm whose winds set up a storm surge will need time to reach the Rhine headwaters where heavy rainfall will find its way to the river mouth after multiple days of travel time. The fourth and final study of this thesis investigates and quantifies the role of memory components in hydrological and meteorological systems which are responsible to generate extreme discharge, i.e. soil moisture, snow accumulation and the antecedent hydro-climatic conditions. Results show that the meteorological autocorrelation (manifesting itself by the occurrence of clustered precipitation events) has a strong impact on the magnitude of peak discharge. Finally, the study illustrates how hydrological memory from snow accumulation and soil moisture complements the generation of extreme discharges. A new valuable insight on the mechanisms of compound floods and its potential impact on water resources (both for historical and future climate) has been gained with novel modelling approaches. The outcomes generated from this thesis might contribute to support climate change adaptation policy planning and outreach programs in these climate change hotspots, i.e., the mountains and deltas.

The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) delta is one of the world's largest deltas. It is currently experiencing high rates of relative sea-level rise of about 5 mm/year, reflecting anthropogenic climate change and land subsidence. This is expected to accelerate further through the 21st Century, so there are concerns that the GBM delta will be progressively submerged. In this context, a core question is: can sedimentation on the delta surface maintain its elevation relative to sea level? This research seeks to answer this question by applying a two-dimensional flow and morphological model which is capable of handling dynamic interactions between the river and floodplain systems and simulating floodplain sedimentation under different flow-sediment regimes and anthropogenic interventions. We find that across a range of flood frequencies and adaptation scenarios (including the natural polder-free state), the retained volume of sediment varies between 22% and 50% of the corresponding sediment input. This translates to average rates of sedimentation on the delta surface of 5.5 mm/yr to 7.5 mm/yr. Hence, under present conditions, sedimentation associated with quasi-natural conditions can exceed current rates of relative sea-level rise and potentially create new land mass. These findings highlight that encouraging quasi-natural conditions through the widespread application of active sediment management measures has the potential to promote more sustainable outcomes for the GBM delta. Practical measures to promote include tidal river management, and appropriate combinations of cross-dams, bandal-like structures, and dredging.

Renewable energy will be a crucial ingredient in the transition to a more sustainable future. The renewable energy sector requires a variety of financial support mechanisms in order to further consolidate and expand. Currently, the most prominent renewable energy support mechanisms are feed-in tariffs and renewable energy auctions. Although these mechanisms have been used and analyzed extensively in Western countries and, more recently, economies in transition, they have rarely been examined in the Arab Gulf region. Yet, particularly the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states have undertaken important steps towards renewable energy adoption, which could be greatly facilitated with the use of financial support mechanisms. This paper analyzes the feasibility of feed-in tariffs and renewable energy auctions adoption in GCC. Based on an extensive meta-analysis of the literature on these two mechanisms in both developed and developing countries, the paper identifies a set of conditions necessary for success and evaluates the presence of favorable these conditions in the GCC context. Our findings reveal that while conditions that would ensure political feasibility are largely absent for both types of mechanisms, auctions could be a more successful strategy at the moment.

Stabilizing global greenhouse gas concentrations at levels to avoid significant climate risks will require massive "decarbonization" of all the major economies over the next few decades, in addition to the reduced emissions from other GHGs and carbon sequestration. Achieving the necessary scale of emissions reductions will require a multifaceted policy effort to support a broad array of technological and behavioral changes. Change on this scale will require sound, well-thought-out strategies. In this article, we outline some core principles, drawn from recent social science research, for guiding the design of clean technology policies, with a focus on energy. The market should be encouraged to make good choices: pricing carbon emissions and other environmental damage, removing distorting subsidies and barriers to competition, and supporting RD&D broadly. More specific policies are required to address particular market failures and barriers. For those technologies identified as being particularly desirable, some narrower RD&D policies are available.

Abstract Floods are challenging the resilience of societies all over the world. In many countries there are discussions on diversifying the strategies for flood risk management, which implies some sort of policy change. To understand the possibilities of such change, a thorough understanding of the forces of stability and change of underlying governance arrangements is required. It follows from the path dependency literature that countries which rely strongly on flood infrastructures, as part of flood defense strategies, would be more path dependent. Consequently there is a higher chance to find more incremental change in these countries than in countries that have a more diversified set of strategies. However, comparative and detailed empirical studies that may help scrutinize this assumption are lacking. To address this knowledge gap, this paper investigates how six European countries (Belgium, England, France, The Netherlands, Poland and Sweden) essentially differ with regard to their governance of flood risks. To analyze stability and change, we focus on how countries are responding to certain societal and ecological driving forces (ecological turn; climate change discourses; European policies; and the increasing prevalence of economic rationalizations) that potentially affect the institutional arrangements for flood risk governance. Taking both the variety of flood risk governance in countries and their responses to driving forces into account, we can clarify the conditions of stability or change of flood risk governance arrangements more generally. The analysis shows that the national-level impact of driving forces is strongly influenced by the flood risk governance arrangements in the six countries. Path dependencies are indeed visible in countries with high investments in flood infrastructure accompanied by strongly institutionalized governance arrangements (Poland, the Netherlands) but not only there. Also more diversified countries that are less dependent on flood infrastructure and flood defense only (England) show path dependencies and mostly incremental change. More substantial changes are visible in countries that show moderate diversification of strategies (Belgium, France) or countries that ‘have no strong path yet’ in comprehensive flood risk governance (Sweden). This suggests that policy change can be expected when there is both the internal need and will to change and a barrage of (external) driving forces pushing for change.

Tourism is an industry of primary importance for the world economy. Tourists are sensitive to climate and to climate change, which will affect the relative attractiveness of destinations and hence the motive for tourists to leave their country. Yet the attention devoted by the tourism literature to climate change and by the climate change literature to tourism has been limited. This paper is divided in two parts. The first part reviews the relevant literature. The second part analyses empirically the relationship between climate characteristics, weather extremes and domestic and international tourism demand across Europe, with a focus on Italy. JEL Classification: L83 , Q25, C 23, C42