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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: United States. Bonneville Power Administration.;

    The information and data contained in this Appendix was extracted from numerous sources. The principle sources used for technical data were Bonneville Power Administration's 1990 Resource Program along with its technical appendix, and Chapter 8 of the Draft 1991 Northwest Conservation and Electric Power Plan. All cost data is reported 1988 dollars unless otherwise noted. This information was supplemented by other data developed by Puget Sound utilities who participated on the Local Generation Team. Identifying generating resources available to the Puget Sound area involved a five step process: (1) listing all possible resources that might contribute power to the Puget Sound area, (2) characterizing the technology/resource status, cost and operating characteristics of these resources, (3) identifying exclusion criteria based on the needs of the overall Puget Sound Electric Reliability Plan study, (4) applying these criteria to the list of resources, and (5) summarizing of the costs and characteristics of the final list of resources. 15 refs., 20 tabs.

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  • Authors: Mulford, Furman Lloyd, b.; United States. Bureau of Plant Industry.; United States. Department of Agriculture.;

    Describes the importance of shade trees within city limits, including: how to plan the layout of street trees; the various types of trees best suited for city growth; and how to properly maintain city-grown trees.

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    Authors: Beatley, Janice C.;

    Three plant species included among the Nevada Threatened or Endangered Flora of the Federal Register list of July 1, 1975, were omitted from the recent reports dealing with these groups of plants in central-southern Nevada. Two of the species, Ephedra funerea and Mirabilis pudica, were not included because they are both widely distributed and locally common in southern Nevada and were understood (unofficially) to be no longer considered candidates for either an Endangered or Threatened status. The third species, Machaeranthera ammophila, is now included with M. arida, an uncommon species of central and eastern Mojave Desert of southern California (to southern Nevada, Arizona, and Sonora), and is therefore no longer a candidate for the status of Threatened Species in Nevada.

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    Authors: Amos, W. A.;

    Two scenarios were examined for small-scale electricity production from biomass using a gasifier/fuel cell system. In one case, a stand-alone BCL/FERC gasifier is used to produce synthesis gas that is reformed and distributed through a pipeline network to individual phosphoric acid fuel cells. In the second design, the gasifier is integrated with a molten carbonate fuel cell stack and a steam bottoming cycle. In both cases, the gasifiers are fed the same amount of material, with the integrated system producing 4 MW of electricity, and the stand-alone design generating 2 MW of electricity.

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    Authors: Witholder, R.E.;

    The Solar Energy Research Institute has conducted a limited sensitivity analysis on a System for Projecting the Utilization of Renewable Resources (SPURR). The study utilized the Domestic Policy Review scenario for SPURR agricultural and industrial process heat and utility market sectors. This sensitivity analysis determines whether variations in solar system capital cost, operation and maintenance cost, and fuel cost (biomass only) correlate with intuitive expectations. The results of this effort contribute to a much larger issue: validation of SPURR. Such a study has practical applications for engineering improvements in solar technologies and is useful as a planning tool in the R and D allocation process.

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    Authors: Fosnacht, Donald R.; Kiesel, Richard F.; Hendrickson, David W.; Englund, David J.; +3 Authors

    The current trend in the steel industry is an increase in iron and steel produced in electric arc furnaces (EAF) and a gradual decline in conventional steelmaking from taconite pellets in blast furnaces. In order to expand the opportunities for the existing iron ore mines beyond their blast furnace customer base, a new material is needed to satisfy the market demands of the emerging steel industry while utilizing the existing infrastructure and materials handling capabilities. This demand creates opportunity to convert iron ore or other iron bearing materials to Nodular Reduced Iron (NRI) in a recently designed Linear Hearth Furnace (LHF). NRI is a metallized iron product containing 98.5 to 96.0% iron and 2.5 to 4% C. It is essentially a scrap substitute with little impurity that can be utilized in a variety of steelmaking processes, especially the electric arc furnace. The objective of this project was to focus on reducing the greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) through reducing the energy intensity using specialized combustion systems, increasing production and the use of biomass derived carbon sources in this process. This research examined the use of a solid fuel-oxygen fired combustion system and compared the results from this system with both oxygen-fuel and air-fuel combustion systems. The solid pulverized fuels tested included various coals and a bio-coal produced from woody biomass in a specially constructed pilot scale torrefaction reactor at the Coleraine Minerals Research Laboratory (CMRL). In addition to combustion, the application of bio-coal was also tested as a means to produce a reducing atmosphere during key points in the fusion process, and as a reducing agent for ore conversion to metallic iron to capture the advantage of its inherent reduced carbon footprint. The results from this study indicate that the approaches taken can reduce both greenhouse gas emissions and the associated energy intensity with the Linear Hearth Furnace process for converting iron ore to metallic iron nodules. Various types of coals including a bio-coal produced though torrefaction can result in production of NRI at reduced GHG levels. The process results coupled with earlier already reported developments indicate that this process technique should be evaluated at the next level in order to develop parameter information for full scale process design. Implementation of the process to full commercialization will require a full cost production analysis and comparison to other reduction technologies and iron production alternatives. The technical results verify that high quality NRI can be produced under various operating conditions at the pilot level.

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    Authors: Coleman, Mark;

    In forest trees, roots mediate such significant carbon fluxes as primary production and soil CO2 efflux. Despite the central role of roots in these critical processes, information on root distribution during stand establishment is limited, yet must be described to accurately predict how various forest types, which are growing with a range of resource limitations, might respond to environmental change. This study reports root length density and biomass development in young stands of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoidies Bartr.) and American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) that have narrow, high resource site requirements, and compares them with sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), which have more robust site requirements. Fine roots ( 5 mm) were sampled to determine spatial distribution in response to fertilizer and irrigation treatments delivered through drip irrigation tubes. Root length density and biomass were predominately controlled by stand development, depth and proximity to drip tubes. After accounting for this spatial and temporal variation, there was a significant increase in RLD with fertilization and irrigation for all genotypes. The response to fertilization was greater than that of irrigation. Both fine and coarse roots responded positively to resources delivered through the drip tube, indicating a whole-root-system response to resource enrichment and not just a feeder root response. The plastic response to drip tube water and nutrient enrichment demonstrate the capability of root systems to respond to supply heterogeneity by increasing acquisition surface. Fine-root biomass, root density and specific root length were greater for broadleaved species than pine. Roots of all genotypes explored the rooting volume within 2 years, but this occurred faster and to higher root length densities in broadleaved species, indicating they had greater initial opportunity for resource acquisition than pine. Sweetgum’s root characteristics and its response to resource availability were similar to the other broadleaved species, despite its functional resemblance to pine regarding robust site requirements. It was concluded that genotypes, irrigation and fertilization significantly influenced tree root system development, which varied spatially in response to resource-supply heterogeneity created by drip tubes. Knowledge of spatial and temporal patterns of root distribution in these stands will be used to interpret nutrient acquisition and soil respiration measurements.

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    Plant and Soil
    Article
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    Plant and Soil
    Article . 2007 . Peer-reviewed
    License: Springer TDM
    Data sources: Crossref
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      Plant and Soil
      Article
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      image/svg+xml Jakob Voss, based on art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina and Beao Closed Access logo, derived from PLoS Open Access logo. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg Jakob Voss, based on art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina and Beao
      Plant and Soil
      Article . 2007 . Peer-reviewed
      License: Springer TDM
      Data sources: Crossref
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    Authors: Evans, L. S.; Raynor, G. S.;

    The aims of the research program are: (a) to observe the minimum threshold dose of simulated acid rain to produce visual and histological effects on plant foliage, (b) approach threshold limits of simulated sulfate acid rain that affect plant growth and reproduction, and (c) to measure chemical and meteorological parameters of incident rain. Acute leaf injury to several plant species resulted from exposure of foliage to simulated sulfate acid rain of pH level 2.3 to 2.9. Only slight injury occurred at 3.1. Scanning electron micrographs showed that injury to upper leaf surfaces occurred mostly at the base of trichomes (leaf hairs) and near stomata. An association of lesion development near vascular tissue was also noted. Histologically, lesions are characterized by an initial collapse of the epidermis with eventual lysis and collapse of more internal leaf tissues on the upper leaf surface of pinto beans which complemented detailed descriptions of visual lesion development after daily exposures to simulated rain. Initial experiments with gametophytes of Pteridium aquilinum show that reproduction of this fern species is very sensitive to solutions of pH 5.2 while vegetative development is not affected at pH levels of 2.2. Initial rain samples from the sequential sampler have been obtained. Initial portions of rain events exhibit a pH near 3.0 in some cases. More complete chemical analyses are anticipated.

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    Authors: Steinberg, M.; Kobayashi, Atsushi; Tung, Yuanki;

    In support of studies for developing the coprocessing of fossil fuels with biomass by the Hydrocarb Process, experimental and process design data are reported. The experimental work includes the hydropryolysis of biomass and the thermal decomposition of methane in a tubular reactor. The rates of reaction and conversion were obtained at temperature and pressure conditions pertaining to a Hydrocarb Process design. A Process Simulation Computer Model was used to design the process and obtain complete energy and mass balances. Multiple feedstocks including biomass with natural gas and biomass with coal were evaluated. Additional feedstocks including green waste, sewage sludge and digester gas were also evaluated for a pilot plant unit.

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    Authors: Turn, S.Q.; Ishimura, D.M.; Kinoshita, C.M.; Masutani, S.M.;

    Shakedown testing of the biomass gasifier facility, located at the Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Co. factory in Paia on the island of Maui, utilizing sugarcane bagasse, occurred in October 1995. Input and output streams for the process were sampled during three periods of steady-state operation in an air-blown mode. Additional tests were carried out in early December, 1995. Air and a mixture of air and steam were utilized as the fluidizing agent in the December operations, with two sampling periods occurring during air gasification and a single period under air-steam-blown conditions. This summary reports average values for the October test period, the December air-blown tests and the December air-steam tests (see following table). Details of individual tests are presented in the body of this report. During the October sampling periods, the average reactor temperature and pressure were 1545{degrees}F (840{degrees}C) and 43 psi (300 kPa), respectively. Bagasse from the sugar factory entered the dryer at a nominal moisture content of 45% and exited at 26%, wet basis. Wet fuel feed rate to the reactor averaged 1.2 ton hr{sup -1} (1.1 tonne hr{sup -1}). Average gas composition determined over the sample periods was 4% H{sub 2}, 10% CO, 18% CO{sub 2}, 3%more » CH{sub 4}, 1% C{sub 2}`s and higher hydrocarbons, and the balance N{sub 2}. The higher heating value of the gas was 100 Btu ft{sup -3} (3.7 MJ m{sup -3}). Condensable hydrocarbons (C{sub 6} and higher) in the output stream averaged 2.3% of dry fuel feed with benzene (C{sub 6}H{sub 6}) and naphthalene (C{sub 10}H{sub 8}) being the principal constituents. Carbon conversion efficiency, defined as the percentage of fuel carbon converted into gas or liquids, was estimated to be {approximately}96%.« less

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    Authors: United States. Bonneville Power Administration.;

    The information and data contained in this Appendix was extracted from numerous sources. The principle sources used for technical data were Bonneville Power Administration's 1990 Resource Program along with its technical appendix, and Chapter 8 of the Draft 1991 Northwest Conservation and Electric Power Plan. All cost data is reported 1988 dollars unless otherwise noted. This information was supplemented by other data developed by Puget Sound utilities who participated on the Local Generation Team. Identifying generating resources available to the Puget Sound area involved a five step process: (1) listing all possible resources that might contribute power to the Puget Sound area, (2) characterizing the technology/resource status, cost and operating characteristics of these resources, (3) identifying exclusion criteria based on the needs of the overall Puget Sound Electric Reliability Plan study, (4) applying these criteria to the list of resources, and (5) summarizing of the costs and characteristics of the final list of resources. 15 refs., 20 tabs.

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  • Authors: Mulford, Furman Lloyd, b.; United States. Bureau of Plant Industry.; United States. Department of Agriculture.;

    Describes the importance of shade trees within city limits, including: how to plan the layout of street trees; the various types of trees best suited for city growth; and how to properly maintain city-grown trees.

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    Authors: Beatley, Janice C.;

    Three plant species included among the Nevada Threatened or Endangered Flora of the Federal Register list of July 1, 1975, were omitted from the recent reports dealing with these groups of plants in central-southern Nevada. Two of the species, Ephedra funerea and Mirabilis pudica, were not included because they are both widely distributed and locally common in southern Nevada and were understood (unofficially) to be no longer considered candidates for either an Endangered or Threatened status. The third species, Machaeranthera ammophila, is now included with M. arida, an uncommon species of central and eastern Mojave Desert of southern California (to southern Nevada, Arizona, and Sonora), and is therefore no longer a candidate for the status of Threatened Species in Nevada.

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    Authors: Amos, W. A.;

    Two scenarios were examined for small-scale electricity production from biomass using a gasifier/fuel cell system. In one case, a stand-alone BCL/FERC gasifier is used to produce synthesis gas that is reformed and distributed through a pipeline network to individual phosphoric acid fuel cells. In the second design, the gasifier is integrated with a molten carbonate fuel cell stack and a steam bottoming cycle. In both cases, the gasifiers are fed the same amount of material, with the integrated system producing 4 MW of electricity, and the stand-alone design generating 2 MW of electricity.

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    Authors: Witholder, R.E.;

    The Solar Energy Research Institute has conducted a limited sensitivity analysis on a System for Projecting the Utilization of Renewable Resources (SPURR). The study utilized the Domestic Policy Review scenario for SPURR agricultural and industrial process heat and utility market sectors. This sensitivity analysis determines whether variations in solar system capital cost, operation and maintenance cost, and fuel cost (biomass only) correlate with intuitive expectations. The results of this effort contribute to a much larger issue: validation of SPURR. Such a study has practical applications for engineering improvements in solar technologies and is useful as a planning tool in the R and D allocation process.

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    Authors: Fosnacht, Donald R.; Kiesel, Richard F.; Hendrickson, David W.; Englund, David J.; +3 Authors

    The current trend in the steel industry is an increase in iron and steel produced in electric arc furnaces (EAF) and a gradual decline in conventional steelmaking from taconite pellets in blast furnaces. In order to expand the opportunities for the existing iron ore mines beyond their blast furnace customer base, a new material is needed to satisfy the market demands of the emerging steel industry while utilizing the existing infrastructure and materials handling capabilities. This demand creates opportunity to convert iron ore or other iron bearing materials to Nodular Reduced Iron (NRI) in a recently designed Linear Hearth Furnace (LHF). NRI is a metallized iron product containing 98.5 to 96.0% iron and 2.5 to 4% C. It is essentially a scrap substitute with little impurity that can be utilized in a variety of steelmaking processes, especially the electric arc furnace. The objective of this project was to focus on reducing the greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) through reducing the energy intensity using specialized combustion systems, increasing production and the use of biomass derived carbon sources in this process. This research examined the use of a solid fuel-oxygen fired combustion system and compared the results from this system with both oxygen-fuel and air-fuel combustion systems. The solid pulverized fuels tested included various coals and a bio-coal produced from woody biomass in a specially constructed pilot scale torrefaction reactor at the Coleraine Minerals Research Laboratory (CMRL). In addition to combustion, the application of bio-coal was also tested as a means to produce a reducing atmosphere during key points in the fusion process, and as a reducing agent for ore conversion to metallic iron to capture the advantage of its inherent reduced carbon footprint. The results from this study indicate that the approaches taken can reduce both greenhouse gas emissions and the associated energy intensity with the Linear Hearth Furnace process for converting iron ore to metallic iron nodules. Various types of coals including a bio-coal produced though torrefaction can result in production of NRI at reduced GHG levels. The process results coupled with earlier already reported developments indicate that this process technique should be evaluated at the next level in order to develop parameter information for full scale process design. Implementation of the process to full commercialization will require a full cost production analysis and comparison to other reduction technologies and iron production alternatives. The technical results verify that high quality NRI can be produced under various operating conditions at the pilot level.

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    Authors: Coleman, Mark;

    In forest trees, roots mediate such significant carbon fluxes as primary production and soil CO2 efflux. Despite the central role of roots in these critical processes, information on root distribution during stand establishment is limited, yet must be described to accurately predict how various forest types, which are growing with a range of resource limitations, might respond to environmental change. This study reports root length density and biomass development in young stands of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoidies Bartr.) and American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) that have narrow, high resource site requirements, and compares them with sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), which have more robust site requirements. Fine roots ( 5 mm) were sampled to determine spatial distribution in response to fertilizer and irrigation treatments delivered through drip irrigation tubes. Root length density and biomass were predominately controlled by stand development, depth and proximity to drip tubes. After accounting for this spatial and temporal variation, there was a significant increase in RLD with fertilization and irrigation for all genotypes. The response to fertilization was greater than that of irrigation. Both fine and coarse roots responded positively to resources delivered through the drip tube, indicating a whole-root-system response to resource enrichment and not just a feeder root response. The plastic response to drip tube water and nutrient enrichment demonstrate the capability of root systems to respond to supply heterogeneity by increasing acquisition surface. Fine-root biomass, root density and specific root length were greater for broadleaved species than pine. Roots of all genotypes explored the rooting volume within 2 years, but this occurred faster and to higher root length densities in broadleaved species, indicating they had greater initial opportunity for resource acquisition than pine. Sweetgum’s root characteristics and its response to resource availability were similar to the other broadleaved species, despite its functional resemblance to pine regarding robust site requirements. It was concluded that genotypes, irrigation and fertilization significantly influenced tree root system development, which varied spatially in response to resource-supply heterogeneity created by drip tubes. Knowledge of spatial and temporal patterns of root distribution in these stands will be used to interpret nutrient acquisition and soil respiration measurements.

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    Plant and Soil
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    Plant and Soil
    Article . 2007 . Peer-reviewed
    License: Springer TDM
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      Plant and Soil
      Article . 2007 . Peer-reviewed
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    Authors: Evans, L. S.; Raynor, G. S.;

    The aims of the research program are: (a) to observe the minimum threshold dose of simulated acid rain to produce visual and histological effects on plant foliage, (b) approach threshold limits of simulated sulfate acid rain that affect plant growth and reproduction, and (c) to measure chemical and meteorological parameters of incident rain. Acute leaf injury to several plant species resulted from exposure of foliage to simulated sulfate acid rain of pH level 2.3 to 2.9. Only slight injury occurred at 3.1. Scanning electron micrographs showed that injury to upper leaf surfaces occurred mostly at the base of trichomes (leaf hairs) and near stomata. An association of lesion development near vascular tissue was also noted. Histologically, lesions are characterized by an initial collapse of the epidermis with eventual lysis and collapse of more internal leaf tissues on the upper leaf surface of pinto beans which complemented detailed descriptions of visual lesion development after daily exposures to simulated rain. Initial experiments with gametophytes of Pteridium aquilinum show that reproduction of this fern species is very sensitive to solutions of pH 5.2 while vegetative development is not affected at pH levels of 2.2. Initial rain samples from the sequential sampler have been obtained. Initial portions of rain events exhibit a pH near 3.0 in some cases. More complete chemical analyses are anticipated.

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    Authors: Steinberg, M.; Kobayashi, Atsushi; Tung, Yuanki;

    In support of studies for developing the coprocessing of fossil fuels with biomass by the Hydrocarb Process, experimental and process design data are reported. The experimental work includes the hydropryolysis of biomass and the thermal decomposition of methane in a tubular reactor. The rates of reaction and conversion were obtained at temperature and pressure conditions pertaining to a Hydrocarb Process design. A Process Simulation Computer Model was used to design the process and obtain complete energy and mass balances. Multiple feedstocks including biomass with natural gas and biomass with coal were evaluated. Additional feedstocks including green waste, sewage sludge and digester gas were also evaluated for a pilot plant unit.

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    Authors: Turn, S.Q.; Ishimura, D.M.; Kinoshita, C.M.; Masutani, S.M.;

    Shakedown testing of the biomass gasifier facility, located at the Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Co. factory in Paia on the island of Maui, utilizing sugarcane bagasse, occurred in October 1995. Input and output streams for the process were sampled during three periods of steady-state operation in an air-blown mode. Additional tests were carried out in early December, 1995. Air and a mixture of air and steam were utilized as the fluidizing agent in the December operations, with two sampling periods occurring during air gasification and a single period under air-steam-blown conditions. This summary reports average values for the October test period, the December air-blown tests and the December air-steam tests (see following table). Details of individual tests are presented in the body of this report. During the October sampling periods, the average reactor temperature and pressure were 1545{degrees}F (840{degrees}C) and 43 psi (300 kPa), respectively. Bagasse from the sugar factory entered the dryer at a nominal moisture content of 45% and exited at 26%, wet basis. Wet fuel feed rate to the reactor averaged 1.2 ton hr{sup -1} (1.1 tonne hr{sup -1}). Average gas composition determined over the sample periods was 4% H{sub 2}, 10% CO, 18% CO{sub 2}, 3%more » CH{sub 4}, 1% C{sub 2}`s and higher hydrocarbons, and the balance N{sub 2}. The higher heating value of the gas was 100 Btu ft{sup -3} (3.7 MJ m{sup -3}). Condensable hydrocarbons (C{sub 6} and higher) in the output stream averaged 2.3% of dry fuel feed with benzene (C{sub 6}H{sub 6}) and naphthalene (C{sub 10}H{sub 8}) being the principal constituents. Carbon conversion efficiency, defined as the percentage of fuel carbon converted into gas or liquids, was estimated to be {approximately}96%.« less

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