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  • Authors: Venel, Gabriel-François, 1723-1775.;

    BLC ; Mode of access: Internet.

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  • Authors: Gruner, Louis, 1809-1883.; France. Mines Administration publication.;

    Mode of access: Internet.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Asselin-Léger, Philippe;

    Ce mémoire vise à comprendre la place que la lutte aux changements climatiques a occupée lors de l’élection fédérale de 2019, considérée par plusieurs comme ayant déterminé par l’attitude des électeurs à propos des changements climatiques. Il analyse la relation entre le comportement électoral et les ramifications climatiques, incarnée par les enjeux de la taxe carbone et les oléoducs, qui clivent la classe politique et qui ont servi d’explication à la suite de la victoire du Parti libéral du Canada de Justin Trudeau. Certains commentateurs politiques – d’Ouest en Est - ont avancé que pour la première fois dans l’histoire canadienne, une élection canadienne a été le théâtre d’un référendum sur les changements climatiques. D’autres ont annoncé le grand gagnant de l’élection ne fût pas tant le gouvernement sortant de Justin Trudeau, et encore moins la formation conservatrice défaite dirigée par Andrew Scheer, mais bien celle de de la taxe carbone adoptée par le gouvernement fédéral dans le Cadre pancanadien sur la croissance propre et les changements climatiques en 2017. This paper aims to understand the place that the climate change took in the 2019 federal election, considered by many to have determined voters' attitudes to climate change. It analyzes the relationship between electoral behavior and climate ramifications, embodied in the carbon tax and oil pipeline issues that split the political class and served as an explanation for the victory of Justin Trudeau's Liberal Party of Canada. Some political commentators from West to East argued that for the first time in Canadian history, a Canadian election was the scene of a referendum on climate change. Others announced that the big winner of the election was notJustin Trudeau's outgoing government, nor the defeated Conservative formation led by Andrew Scheer, but the carbon tax adopted by the federal government in the 2017 Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change. Sondage post-électoral de l'élection canadienne de 2019

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  • Authors: Shirkie, R.;

    Version anglaise disponible dans la Bibliothèque numérique du CRDI: Fuelling controversy ; Version espagnole disponible dans la Bibliothèque numérique du CRDI: Controversia de los combustibles

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Khun, Kosal;

    Grâce aux technologies de l’information et aux systèmes de positionnement par satellites (GNSS), l’agriculture de précision raffine l’échelle d’observation et d’intervention, du champ à la plante individuelle. La télédétection, notamment à travers les images satellitaires, a également permis de surveiller l’évolution de la culture, avec une fréquence temporelle et une résolution spatiale accrues. La vigueur de la culture est un paramètre crucial de la fertilisation, permettant d’optimiser l’apport en intrants et de générer des retombées économiques et environnementales. Plusieurs manières d’estimer la vigueur sont possibles. Pour une culture en rangs comme le maïs (Zea Mays L.), nous avons privilégié la biomasse qui servira de proxy à la vigueur. Notre étude s’appuie sur l’hypothèse que l’avènement des drones agricoles ouvrira la voie à une meilleure estimation de la vigueur. Nous supposons que la flexibilité de la plateforme combinée avec la très haute résolution spatiale (THRS) des images droniques permettra un suivi plus précis de l’évolution de la vigueur, tant dans l’espace que dans le temps – conditions critiques pour le déploiement de l’agriculture de précision. Les recherches des 15 dernières années s’appuient sur le drone pour collecter des images THRS, dont le traitement fait appel principalement à la méthode des indices de végétation, tel le NDVI. Plusieurs questions se posent : – Le recours au NDVI est-il la manière la plus efficiente d’exploiter la THRS des images droniques ? Si non, comment exploiter autrement et mieux cette imagerie ? – Attendu les contraintes de temps, la quantité de données et les impératifs logistiques, la méthode de traitement adoptée sera-t-elle suffisamment robuste ? Les concepts utilisés seront-ils simples et compréhensibles pour obtenir l’adhésion des utilisateurs finaux, c’est-à-dire les agriculteurs ? – Les capteurs à bord des drones pouvant être orientés assez librement, quels sont les effets des angles de visée sur les résultats ? D’abord, nous avons évalué la pertinence de l’approche classique, consistant à utiliser l’indice NDVI pour déterminer les paramètres de la culture. Pour cela, la plateforme dronique est comparée avec le capteur de proximité GreenSeeker. Il en découle que le drone se montre moins performant que le GreenSeeker pour l’estimation de la biomasse du maïs. Nous avons ainsi délaissé l’approche classique et opté pour un indicateur de surface apparente, extrait à l’aide des techniques de vision par ordinateur appliquées à des images RGB. Cette méthode tire profit de la THRS offerte par l’imagerie dronique et produit un proxy robuste de la biomasse, au niveau surfacique (par mètre carré) et linéaire (par rang). Nous avons aussi constaté que les résultats n’étaient pas affectés par les angles d’acquisition des images (au nadir et obliques). Partant, cette recherche ouvre la perspective à des applications de la dronautique en agriculture de précision, pour l’estimation de la vigueur et d’autres paramètres fondamentaux entrant dans les algorithmes d’optimisation des intrants. Elle offre également la possibilité d’imaginer des plateformes non-droniques pour l’acquisition des images THRS dans le contexte de la fertilisation. Thanks to information technologies and GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), precision agriculture is refining the scale of observation and intervention, from the field to the individual plant. Remote sensing, in particular through satellite imagery, has also made it possible to monitor the crop dynamics, with increasing time frequency and spatial resolution. Crop vigor is a crucial parameter allowing the optimization of inputs, and consequently economic and environmental benefits. Several ways to estimate crop vigor are possible. For a row crop such as corn (Zea Mays L.), aboveground biomass has been favored and will serve as a proxy for vigor. Our study is based on the hypothesis that the recent advent of agricultural UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) will pave the way for a better estimation of crop vigor. We assume that the flexibility of the UAV combined with the very high spatial resolution of their images will allow a more accurate monitoring of crop vigor, both in space and time – conditions which are critical for the deployment of precision agriculture. Research over the past 15 years has relied on the UAV to collect images of very high spatial resolution. However, the processing of those images is mainly based on vegetation indices, especially the NDVI. Several questions arise from the above observations: – Is the use of NDVI the most efficient way to exploit the spatial resolution of UAV images? If not, is there a better way to exploit this imagery? – How to respond to time and logistical constraints in the image processing so that it is ultimately adopted by farmers? – Since UAV-borne sensors can be oriented quite freely, what are the effects of the acquisition angles on the results? First, we assessed the relevance of the traditional approach which uses the NDVI index to determine crop parameters. To do that, we compared the UAV platform with the GreenSeeker proximal sensor. The results showed that the UAV is less efficient than the GreenSeeker in estimating corn biomass. We thus moved away from the traditional approach and opted for a method extracting the apparent leaf area, through computer vision techniques applied to RGB images. This method took advantage of the very high spatial resolution offered by UAV images and produced a robust proxy for corn biomass, at the surface (per square meter) and row levels. We also found that the results were not affected by the acquisition angles of the images (nadir and oblique). Therefore, this research opens the perspective to UAV applications in precision agriculture, for the estimation of vigor and other fundamental parameters used in input optimization algorithms. It also offers the possibility to imagine non-UAV based platforms for the acquisition of very high resolution images in the context of fertilization.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Chaste, Émeline;

    Des changements de composition et de structure forestière sont projetés en réponse au climat futur potentiellement plus propice aux feux et au stress hydrique. Une réduction importante des stocks de carbone et de biomasse pourraient influencer considérablement l’industrie forestière et le réchauffement global. Malgré son importance écologique et socioéconomique, le devenir de la forêt est incertain car les impacts du changement climatique sur les processus écosystémiques et la biomasse sont encore mal compris. L’objectif principal est donc d’évaluer les effets potentiels du changement climatique sur la dynamique de végétation et des incendies, et de caractériser leurs effets conjoints sur la résilience de la forêt boréale de l’Est canadien de part et d’autre de la limite nordique des forêts sous aménagement (LNFA). Des simulations ont été réalisées avec le modèle LPJ-LMfire pour répondre à trois objectifs spécifiques : (1) reconstruire l’activité de feux au 20ème siècle et analyser l’évolution des tendances spatio-temporelles des feux avec la végétation et le climat, (2) projeter la réponse de la forêt au changement climatique et à l’augmentation prévue des feux pour déterminer si des changements brusques de biomasse des espèces dominantes pourraient survenir, (3) simuler les trajectoires passées des feux et de la végétation en réponse aux variations climatiques holocènes afin de comprendre les relations ayant existé entre le climat, le feu et la végétation. Pour la première fois, des simulations sont effectuées avec LPJ-LMfire sur plus de 6000 ans et à haute résolution spatiale (100 km2) sur la forêt boréale de l'Est canadien. Les types fonctionnels de plantes correspondant aux quatre genres d’arbres dominants (Picea, Abies, Pinus, Populus) ont été paramétrés. Les capacités prédictives de LPJ-LMfire ont été examinées en comparant nos simulations des taux annuels de combustion et de biomasse avec des ensembles indépendants de données disponibles pour le dernier siècle et des reconstructions paléoécologiques obtenues à partir des enregistrements lacustres de charbons et de pollens. Enfin, la version LPJ-LMfire développée a été utilisée avec des scénarios climatiques de l’IPCC pour analyser les trajectoires sur le 21ème siècle. Les résultats principaux de cette étude ont révélé que LPJ-LMfire reproduit correctement les tendances spatio-temporelles de la fréquence des feux observée au cours du dernier siècle et les tendances spatiales de la biomasse aérienne totale, à l’exception de la biomasse à la limite nord des arbres qui est surestimée. Les trajectoires des feux et de la végétation simulées sur l'Holocène sont décalées spatialement par rapport aux reconstructions paléoécologiques et serait dû aux données climatiques IPSL-CM5A-LR fournies en entrée du modèle. La variabilité climatique et les impacts de foudre sont les facteurs déterminants de la répartition de la fréquence des feux au cours du 20ème siècle alors que les rétroactions de la végétation sur les feux contrôlent la distribution de leur fréquence sur de longues échelles de temps. Nos résultats contredisent l’augmentation prévue du risque de feu futur, suggérant plutôt une diminution de la fréquence des feux d’ici 2100, surtout dans le sud, associée à une augmentation de la proportion des taxons feuillus et à une ouverture des paysages qui devraient limiter les allumages et la propagation des feux. Dans les zones les plus méridionales, l’effet fertilisant de l’augmentation des concentrations en CO2 atmosphériques sur la productivité forestière ne compensera pas les pertes de biomasse causées par les feux de forêt et les épisodes de mortalité attribuables aux sécheresses. En 2100, la baisse des stocks de biomasse et l’enfeuillement au sud de la LNFA pourraient menacer l’économie du secteur forestier. Des pratiques sylvicoles préservant la productivité et la résilience de la forêt sont donc à recommander pour permettre une gestion durable des forêts. Changes in forest composition and structure are projected in response to the future climate likely more conducive to fire and water stress. A decrease in carbon and biomass stocks could significantly affect the forest industry and global warming by high carbon emissions during fires. However, despite its ecological and socio-economic importance, the future of the forest is uncertain because the impacts of climate change on ecosystem processes and standing biomass are still poorly understood. The primary objective is therefore to assess the potential effects of climate change on vegetation dynamics and fires, and to characterize their joint effects on the resilience of eastern Canada's boreal forest on both sides of the northern limit of managed forests (NLMF). Simulations were carried out with the LPJ-LMfire dynamic global vegetation model and focused on three specific objectives: (1) to reconstruct fire activity during the 20th century and analyze changes in spatial and temporal fire trends related to vegetation and climate, (2) to analyze the forest response projection to climate change and to fire increase to assess if abrupt changes in biomass of dominant species could occur, (3) to simulate trajectories of past fires and vegetation in response to Holocene climatic variations to understand the relationship between climate, fire and vegetation. For the first time, simulations are performed on the eastern boreal forest with LPJ-LMfire over 6000 years and at high spatial resolution (100 km 2) over a study area stretching west to east, from Manitoba to Newfoundland. The plant functional types for the four dominant tree genera (Picea, Abies, Pinus, Populus) have been parameterized. The predictive capabilities of the model were tested over the 20th century by comparing simulated annual rates of combustion and biomass with independent observations. The same variables, simulated over the past 6,000 years, have been compared to paleoecological reconstructions from lacustrine records of microcharcoals and pollen. Finally, the present version of LPJ-LMfire has been used with IPCC climate scenarios to analyze trajectories along the 21st century. The results show that LPJ-LMfire correctly reproduces the spatio-temporal trends in fire frequency observed in the 20th century, particularly in Manitoba and Ontario. The simulated spatial distribution of plant biomass is also consistent with observations, except at the northern limit of trees where it is overestimated, especially for Picea. The trajectories of simulated fires and vegetation over the last 6,000 years were spatially shifted compared to paleoecological reconstructions: too far south in the west and too far north in the east. The observed difference would be due to the IPSL-CM5A-LR climate data provided as input of LPJ-LMfire. Climate variability and lightning impacts are the determining factors in the distribution of fire frequency during the 20th century, while vegetation feedbacks on fires control the distribution of their frequency over long time scales. Our results contradict the predicted increase in future fire risk, suggesting a decrease in fire frequency by 2100, especially in the south, associated with an increase in the proportion of deciduous taxa and an opening of landscapes that should limit ignition and spread of fires. The frequency and intensity of droughts induced by climate change are expected to increase and favor tree mortality south of the NLMF. Rising temperatures and atmospheric CO2 will only temporarily increase forest productivity. By 2100, declining biomass stocks and increasing broadleaf proportion south of the NLMF could threaten the economy of the forest sector. Silvicultural practices that preserve productivity and boreal forest resilience are therefore recommended to maintain sustainable forest management.

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    Hal
    Doctoral thesis . 2018
    Data sources: Hal
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    HAL-IRD
    Doctoral thesis . 2018
    Data sources: HAL-IRD
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      Hal
      Doctoral thesis . 2018
      Data sources: Hal
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      HAL-IRD
      Doctoral thesis . 2018
      Data sources: HAL-IRD
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    Authors: Bonnet, Marion;

    Dans le monde, les écosystèmes, notamment les forêts, sont mis à mal par les activités anthropiques. La souveraineté étatique, le développement économique, les incendies, le développement durable et la commercialisation de produits ligneux nationale et internationale sont tout autant de motivations économiques à l’origine des déforestations intensives. Bien qu’il n’existe pas, à ce jour, de régime international spécifiquement dédié aux forêts, ces dernières sont prises en compte de manière plus ou moins directe. La communauté internationale met en place une multitude de mécanismes juridiques internationaux et régionaux de protection et de commercialisation dans cet objectif. Également, le droit international propose diverses actions, qui prennent la forme de législation, de répression, de programmes internationaux et nationaux éducatifs, facultatifs et incitatifs. Les forêts sont alors instrumentalisées par ces mécanismes internationaux afin de résoudre les différentes problématiques actuelles liées aux changements climatiques, à la baisse de la biodiversité, à la sécheresse ou à la commercialisation. Le travail qui suit s’attardera sur l’étude du cas de la forêt amazonienne brésilienne et cherchera à déterminer si les mécanismes de droit internationaux permettent de protéger les forêts tropicales tout en poursuivant leurs objectifs. All over the world, ecosystems – and forests in particular – are under threat from human activities. State sovereignty, economic developments, fires, sustainable development and the marketing of wood products both nationally and internationally are all economic motivations behind intensive deforestation. Although there is currently no international regime specifically dedicated to forests, they are taken into account in a more or less direct way. The international community is setting up a multitude of international and regional legal mechanisms to protect and market forests. International law also proposes a variety of actions, in the form of legislation, repression, and international and national educational, voluntary and incentive programs. Forests are then instrumentalized by these international mechanisms to solve the various current problems linked to climate change, biodiversity loss, drought or commercialization. The following work will focus on the case of the Brazilian Amazon rainforest and will seek to determine whether international legal mechanisms can protect tropical forests while pursuing their objectives.

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    Authors: Le Serrec, Annaïch;

    Les travaux entrepris dans le cadre de la présente thèse portent sur l’analyse de l’équivalence terminologique en corpus parallèle et en corpus comparable. Plus spécifiquement, nous nous intéressons aux corpus de textes spécialisés appartenant au domaine du changement climatique. Une des originalités de cette étude réside dans l’analyse des équivalents de termes simples. Les bases théoriques sur lesquelles nous nous appuyons sont la terminologie textuelle (Bourigault et Slodzian 1999) et l’approche lexico-sémantique (L’Homme 2005). Cette étude poursuit deux objectifs. Le premier est d’effectuer une analyse comparative de l’équivalence dans les deux types de corpus afin de vérifier si l’équivalence terminologique observable dans les corpus parallèles se distingue de celle que l’on trouve dans les corpus comparables. Le deuxième consiste à comparer dans le détail les équivalents associés à un même terme anglais, afin de les décrire et de les répertorier pour en dégager une typologie. L’analyse détaillée des équivalents français de 343 termes anglais est menée à bien grâce à l’exploitation d’outils informatiques (extracteur de termes, aligneur de textes, etc.) et à la mise en place d’une méthodologie rigoureuse divisée en trois parties. La première partie qui est commune aux deux objectifs de la recherche concerne l’élaboration des corpus, la validation des termes anglais et le repérage des équivalents français dans les deux corpus. La deuxième partie décrit les critères sur lesquels nous nous appuyons pour comparer les équivalents des deux types de corpus. La troisième partie met en place la typologie des équivalents associés à un même terme anglais. Les résultats pour le premier objectif montrent que sur les 343 termes anglais analysés, les termes présentant des équivalents critiquables dans les deux corpus sont relativement peu élevés (12), tandis que le nombre de termes présentant des similitudes d’équivalence entre les corpus est très élevé (272 équivalents identiques et 55 équivalents non critiquables). L’analyse comparative décrite dans ce chapitre confirme notre hypothèse selon laquelle la terminologie employée dans les corpus parallèles ne se démarque pas de celle des corpus comparables. Les résultats pour le deuxième objectif montrent que de nombreux termes anglais sont rendus par plusieurs équivalents (70 % des termes analysés). Il est aussi constaté que ce ne sont pas les synonymes qui forment le groupe le plus important des équivalents, mais les quasi-synonymes. En outre, les équivalents appartenant à une autre partie du discours constituent une part importante des équivalents. Ainsi, la typologie élaborée dans cette thèse présente des mécanismes de l’équivalence terminologique peu décrits aussi systématiquement dans les travaux antérieurs. The research undertaken for this thesis concerns the analysis of terminological equivalence in a parallel corpus and a comparable corpus. More specifically, we focus on specialized texts related to the domain of climate change. A unique aspect of this study is based on the analysis of the equivalents of single word terms. The theoretical frameworks on which we rely are the terminologie textuelle (Bourigault et Slodzian 1999) and the lexico-sémantique approaches (L’Homme 2005). This study has two objectives. The first is to perform a comparative analysis of terminological equivalents in the two types of corpora in order to verify if the equivalents found in the parallel corpus are different from the ones observed in the comparable corpora. The second is to compare in detail equivalents associated with a same English term, in order to describe them and define a typology. A detailed analysis of the French equivalents of 343 English terms is carried out with the help of computer tools (term extractor, text aligner, etc.) and the establishment of a rigorous methodology divided into three parts. The first part, common to both objectives of the research concerns the elaboration of the corpus, the validation of the English terms and the identification of the French equivalents in the two corpora. The second part describes the criteria on which we rely to compare the equivalents of the two types of corpora. The third part sets up the typology of equivalents associated with a same English term. The results for the first objective shows that of the 343 English words analyzed, terms with equivalents that can be criticized in both corpora are relatively low in number (12), while the number of terms with similar equivalences between the two corpora is very high (272 identical and 55 equivalents not objectionable). The analysis described in this chapter confirms our hypothesis that terminology used in parallel corpora does not differ from that used in comparable corpora. The results of the second objective show that many English terms are rendered by several equivalents (70% of analyzed terms). It is also noted that synonyms are not the largest group of equivalents but near-synonyms. Also, equivalents from another part of speech constitute an important part of the equivalents analyzed. Thus, the typology developed in this thesis presents terminological equivalent mechanisms rarely described as systematically in previous work.

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    Authors: Aguiar, Lazar;

    Au cours des 50 dernières années, l’Afrique de l’Ouest a subi une des plus fortes variations de la pluviométrie observées à l’échelle du Globe. Ces fluctuations climatiques ont non seulement affecté le régime des précipitations mais elles ont également engendré des conséquences sur les ressources hydrologiques et végétales. Cette thèse traite de la variabilité climatique et de ses conséquences sur les ressources en eau et la dynamique des zones humides notamment des Niayes 2 du Sénégal au cours de la période comprise entre 1950 et 2004.La thèse s’articule autour de trois volets. Le premier est une caractérisation inter- annuelle et quotidienne de la variabilité climatique par l’analyse de tendance de quelques indices de variabilité et d’extrêmes de précipitations. Le second volet porte sur la réponse des systèmes hydrogéologiques des Niayes à la variabilité pluviométrique par une analyse inter-annuelle (1958-2002) et intra-annuelle du niveau de la nappe. Deux exemples extrêmes sont analysés pour illustrer le phénomène: l’année excédentaire de 1958 et l’année déficitaire de 1974. Enfin, l’impact de la variabilité hydro-climatologique sur les zones humides a été estimé à partir d’un suivi de l’évolution des zones humides via l’analyse diachronique de photographies aériennes des années 1954, 1974 et 2000.Les résultats de l’étude montrent que le déficit pluviométrique enregistré dans la région des Niayes depuis la fin des années 1960 est lié à une réduction du nombre de jours pluvieux (2j/10 ans en moyenne) et une hausse du nombre maximum de jours secs consécutifs (4j/10 ans en moyenne) au cours de la saison de mousson entre avril et octobre. Le nombre de jours dépassant les fortes valeurs de précipitations (par rapport au 90 e centile) a également subi une baisse. Par contre, les précipitations cumulées sur trois jours atteignent souvent le 1⁄4 du cumul annuel ce qui confirme le rôle joué par les événements extrêmes sur l’intensité moyenne et les cumuls mensuels ou saisonniers des précipitations. En plus d’une réduction de la durée de la saison pluvieuse qui est passée de plus de cinq mois à près de trois mois entre 1950 et 2004, les précipitations ont davantage baissé au Sud qu’au Nord, induisant une réduction du gradient Sud-Nord.La Nappe des Sables Quaternaires est actuellement à un niveau extrêmement bas résultant d’une longue période pluviométrique déficitaire. Le maximum piézométrique est passé, sur l’ensemble de la région, de +55 m en moyenne en 1958 à +22 m en 1994 (au dessus du niveau 0 de la mer). Les plus fortes variations sont enregistrées au cours des années 1970 et 1980 - notamment au sud de la région des Niayes - avec -0.60 m tous les dix ans. Le bilan hydrologique de l’année 1974 suggère que les facteurs naturels sont les principales causes de déstockage de la nappe avec 96% des sorties dont 89% par évapotranspiration. À l’échelle saisonnière, la recharge de la nappe dépend de la fréquence, de l’intensité et de la durée des précipitations et des séquences sèches à l’intérieur de la saison pluvieuse plus que du cumul annuel. En année de précipitations excédentaires (1958), le temps de recharge est de 5 à 7 mois contrairement en année «sèche» (1974) où les fluctuations piézométriques sont quasi nulles.La dégradation actuelle des conditions hydro-climatiques se manifeste par un asséchement progressif de zones humides. Sur l’ensemble de la région des Niayes, la superficie des zones inondées en permanence est passée de plus de 1000 ha en 1954 à moins de 170 ha en 1974 pour atteindre environ 50 ha en 1982. En 2000, aucune zone inondée en permanence n’est perceptible. Dans le secteur de Mboro (15°9 N - 16°54 W) les zones inondées en permanence se sont transformées progressivement en sols à hydromorphie partielle. La «reprise pluviométrique» observée à la fin des années 1990 n’a pas initié une réapparition en surface de la nappe qui subit un «effet mémoire» dû aux déficits pluviométriques répétés. During 50 last years, West Africa has been undergoing one of the most significant variations in rainfall observed around the globe. These climatic fluctuations have not only affected the characteristics of precipitations but also the hydrogeologic and forest resources considering their major effects on the agricultural ones of the area. This thesis examines climate variability and its consequences on water resources and the dynamic of wetlands, particularly Niayes 3 in Senegal during the period between 1950 and 2004.The thesis is based on three components. The first is an inter-annual and daily characterization of climate variability through a trend analysis of several variability indices and precipitation extremes. The second deals with the response of Niayes’ hydrogeological systems’ to rainfall variations through an inter-annual analysis (1958-2002) and an intra-annual analysis of the water table level. Two extreme examples are analyzed in order to illustrate the phenomenon: The excessive rainfall year of 1958 and the deficient rainfall year of 1974. Finally, the impact of hydro- climatological variability on wet zones is estimated based on monitoring of changes to soil use via an analysis of aerial photographs from 1954, 1974 and 2000.The results show that the rainfall deficit recorded in the Niayes’ since the end of the year 1960 is related to a reduction of the number of rainy days (2j/10 years on average) and a rise of the maximum number of consecutive dry days (4j/10 years on average) during the monsoon season between April and October. The number of days exceeding high precipitation values (compared to the 90th percentile) also decreased. However, cumulative three-day precipitation totals frequently reached 1⁄4 of the annual total, which confirms the role played by extreme events on the average intensity and monthly or seasonal totals of precipitation. In addition to a reduction in the length of the rainy season from more than five months to close to three months between 1950 and 2004, precipitation decreased more substantially in the South than the North, resulting in a reduction of the South-North gradient.The Quaternary water table is currently at an extremely low level, due to a long period of insufficient rainfall. The piezometric maximum for the region as a whole went from an average of +55 m in 1958 to +22 m in 1994 (above the sea level 0 value). The greatest variations were recorded in the 1970s and 1980s - particularly in the south of the Niayes region - with -0.60 m every 10 years. The hydrological total for 1974 suggests that natural factors are the main causes of depletion of the water table with 96% of outflows, including 89% by evapotranspiration. On a seasonal scale, the water table recharge depends on the frequency, intensity and the length of precipitation and dry sequences within the rainy season more than the annual total. In a «rainy year» (1958), the recharge time was between 5 and 7 months compared to a «dry year» (1974) when piezometric fluctuations were nil.The current degradation of hydro-climactic conditions is demonstrated by a progressive drying out of wetlands. For the entire Niayes region, the area of permanently flooded areas went from more than 1.000 ha in 1954 to less than 170 ha in 1974 to reach approximately 50 ha in 1982. In 2000, no ponds were noticeable in the region. In the Mboro area (15°9 N - 16°54 W) permanently flooded zones have gradually transformed into partial hydromorph soils. The «rain recovery» observed in the late 1990s did not lead to a surface reappearance of the water table which is undergoing a «memory effect» due to repeated rain deficits.

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    Hal
    Doctoral thesis . 2008
    Data sources: Hal
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      Hal
      Doctoral thesis . 2008
      Data sources: Hal
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    Authors: Atif, M. R.;

    11e Congrès de l'Association Québecoise pour la Maîtrise de l'Énergie: 03 April 1997, Mont Tremblant, Québec

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    NRC Publications Archive
    Conference object . 1997
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      NRC Publications Archive
      Conference object . 1997
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259 Research products
  • Authors: Venel, Gabriel-François, 1723-1775.;

    BLC ; Mode of access: Internet.

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  • Authors: Gruner, Louis, 1809-1883.; France. Mines Administration publication.;

    Mode of access: Internet.

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    Authors: Asselin-Léger, Philippe;

    Ce mémoire vise à comprendre la place que la lutte aux changements climatiques a occupée lors de l’élection fédérale de 2019, considérée par plusieurs comme ayant déterminé par l’attitude des électeurs à propos des changements climatiques. Il analyse la relation entre le comportement électoral et les ramifications climatiques, incarnée par les enjeux de la taxe carbone et les oléoducs, qui clivent la classe politique et qui ont servi d’explication à la suite de la victoire du Parti libéral du Canada de Justin Trudeau. Certains commentateurs politiques – d’Ouest en Est - ont avancé que pour la première fois dans l’histoire canadienne, une élection canadienne a été le théâtre d’un référendum sur les changements climatiques. D’autres ont annoncé le grand gagnant de l’élection ne fût pas tant le gouvernement sortant de Justin Trudeau, et encore moins la formation conservatrice défaite dirigée par Andrew Scheer, mais bien celle de de la taxe carbone adoptée par le gouvernement fédéral dans le Cadre pancanadien sur la croissance propre et les changements climatiques en 2017. This paper aims to understand the place that the climate change took in the 2019 federal election, considered by many to have determined voters' attitudes to climate change. It analyzes the relationship between electoral behavior and climate ramifications, embodied in the carbon tax and oil pipeline issues that split the political class and served as an explanation for the victory of Justin Trudeau's Liberal Party of Canada. Some political commentators from West to East argued that for the first time in Canadian history, a Canadian election was the scene of a referendum on climate change. Others announced that the big winner of the election was notJustin Trudeau's outgoing government, nor the defeated Conservative formation led by Andrew Scheer, but the carbon tax adopted by the federal government in the 2017 Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change. Sondage post-électoral de l'élection canadienne de 2019

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  • Authors: Shirkie, R.;

    Version anglaise disponible dans la Bibliothèque numérique du CRDI: Fuelling controversy ; Version espagnole disponible dans la Bibliothèque numérique du CRDI: Controversia de los combustibles

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    Authors: Khun, Kosal;

    Grâce aux technologies de l’information et aux systèmes de positionnement par satellites (GNSS), l’agriculture de précision raffine l’échelle d’observation et d’intervention, du champ à la plante individuelle. La télédétection, notamment à travers les images satellitaires, a également permis de surveiller l’évolution de la culture, avec une fréquence temporelle et une résolution spatiale accrues. La vigueur de la culture est un paramètre crucial de la fertilisation, permettant d’optimiser l’apport en intrants et de générer des retombées économiques et environnementales. Plusieurs manières d’estimer la vigueur sont possibles. Pour une culture en rangs comme le maïs (Zea Mays L.), nous avons privilégié la biomasse qui servira de proxy à la vigueur. Notre étude s’appuie sur l’hypothèse que l’avènement des drones agricoles ouvrira la voie à une meilleure estimation de la vigueur. Nous supposons que la flexibilité de la plateforme combinée avec la très haute résolution spatiale (THRS) des images droniques permettra un suivi plus précis de l’évolution de la vigueur, tant dans l’espace que dans le temps – conditions critiques pour le déploiement de l’agriculture de précision. Les recherches des 15 dernières années s’appuient sur le drone pour collecter des images THRS, dont le traitement fait appel principalement à la méthode des indices de végétation, tel le NDVI. Plusieurs questions se posent : – Le recours au NDVI est-il la manière la plus efficiente d’exploiter la THRS des images droniques ? Si non, comment exploiter autrement et mieux cette imagerie ? – Attendu les contraintes de temps, la quantité de données et les impératifs logistiques, la méthode de traitement adoptée sera-t-elle suffisamment robuste ? Les concepts utilisés seront-ils simples et compréhensibles pour obtenir l’adhésion des utilisateurs finaux, c’est-à-dire les agriculteurs ? – Les capteurs à bord des drones pouvant être orientés assez librement, quels sont les effets des angles de visée sur les résultats ? D’abord, nous avons évalué la pertinence de l’approche classique, consistant à utiliser l’indice NDVI pour déterminer les paramètres de la culture. Pour cela, la plateforme dronique est comparée avec le capteur de proximité GreenSeeker. Il en découle que le drone se montre moins performant que le GreenSeeker pour l’estimation de la biomasse du maïs. Nous avons ainsi délaissé l’approche classique et opté pour un indicateur de surface apparente, extrait à l’aide des techniques de vision par ordinateur appliquées à des images RGB. Cette méthode tire profit de la THRS offerte par l’imagerie dronique et produit un proxy robuste de la biomasse, au niveau surfacique (par mètre carré) et linéaire (par rang). Nous avons aussi constaté que les résultats n’étaient pas affectés par les angles d’acquisition des images (au nadir et obliques). Partant, cette recherche ouvre la perspective à des applications de la dronautique en agriculture de précision, pour l’estimation de la vigueur et d’autres paramètres fondamentaux entrant dans les algorithmes d’optimisation des intrants. Elle offre également la possibilité d’imaginer des plateformes non-droniques pour l’acquisition des images THRS dans le contexte de la fertilisation. Thanks to information technologies and GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), precision agriculture is refining the scale of observation and intervention, from the field to the individual plant. Remote sensing, in particular through satellite imagery, has also made it possible to monitor the crop dynamics, with increasing time frequency and spatial resolution. Crop vigor is a crucial parameter allowing the optimization of inputs, and consequently economic and environmental benefits. Several ways to estimate crop vigor are possible. For a row crop such as corn (Zea Mays L.), aboveground biomass has been favored and will serve as a proxy for vigor. Our study is based on the hypothesis that the recent advent of agricultural UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) will pave the way for a better estimation of crop vigor. We assume that the flexibility of the UAV combined with the very high spatial resolution of their images will allow a more accurate monitoring of crop vigor, both in space and time – conditions which are critical for the deployment of precision agriculture. Research over the past 15 years has relied on the UAV to collect images of very high spatial resolution. However, the processing of those images is mainly based on vegetation indices, especially the NDVI. Several questions arise from the above observations: – Is the use of NDVI the most efficient way to exploit the spatial resolution of UAV images? If not, is there a better way to exploit this imagery? – How to respond to time and logistical constraints in the image processing so that it is ultimately adopted by farmers? – Since UAV-borne sensors can be oriented quite freely, what are the effects of the acquisition angles on the results? First, we assessed the relevance of the traditional approach which uses the NDVI index to determine crop parameters. To do that, we compared the UAV platform with the GreenSeeker proximal sensor. The results showed that the UAV is less efficient than the GreenSeeker in estimating corn biomass. We thus moved away from the traditional approach and opted for a method extracting the apparent leaf area, through computer vision techniques applied to RGB images. This method took advantage of the very high spatial resolution offered by UAV images and produced a robust proxy for corn biomass, at the surface (per square meter) and row levels. We also found that the results were not affected by the acquisition angles of the images (nadir and oblique). Therefore, this research opens the perspective to UAV applications in precision agriculture, for the estimation of vigor and other fundamental parameters used in input optimization algorithms. It also offers the possibility to imagine non-UAV based platforms for the acquisition of very high resolution images in the context of fertilization.

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    Authors: Chaste, Émeline;

    Des changements de composition et de structure forestière sont projetés en réponse au climat futur potentiellement plus propice aux feux et au stress hydrique. Une réduction importante des stocks de carbone et de biomasse pourraient influencer considérablement l’industrie forestière et le réchauffement global. Malgré son importance écologique et socioéconomique, le devenir de la forêt est incertain car les impacts du changement climatique sur les processus écosystémiques et la biomasse sont encore mal compris. L’objectif principal est donc d’évaluer les effets potentiels du changement climatique sur la dynamique de végétation et des incendies, et de caractériser leurs effets conjoints sur la résilience de la forêt boréale de l’Est canadien de part et d’autre de la limite nordique des forêts sous aménagement (LNFA). Des simulations ont été réalisées avec le modèle LPJ-LMfire pour répondre à trois objectifs spécifiques : (1) reconstruire l’activité de feux au 20ème siècle et analyser l’évolution des tendances spatio-temporelles des feux avec la végétation et le climat, (2) projeter la réponse de la forêt au changement climatique et à l’augmentation prévue des feux pour déterminer si des changements brusques de biomasse des espèces dominantes pourraient survenir, (3) simuler les trajectoires passées des feux et de la végétation en réponse aux variations climatiques holocènes afin de comprendre les relations ayant existé entre le climat, le feu et la végétation. Pour la première fois, des simulations sont effectuées avec LPJ-LMfire sur plus de 6000 ans et à haute résolution spatiale (100 km2) sur la forêt boréale de l'Est canadien. Les types fonctionnels de plantes correspondant aux quatre genres d’arbres dominants (Picea, Abies, Pinus, Populus) ont été paramétrés. Les capacités prédictives de LPJ-LMfire ont été examinées en comparant nos simulations des taux annuels de combustion et de biomasse avec des ensembles indépendants de données disponibles pour le dernier siècle et des reconstructions paléoécologiques obtenues à partir des enregistrements lacustres de charbons et de pollens. Enfin, la version LPJ-LMfire développée a été utilisée avec des scénarios climatiques de l’IPCC pour analyser les trajectoires sur le 21ème siècle. Les résultats principaux de cette étude ont révélé que LPJ-LMfire reproduit correctement les tendances spatio-temporelles de la fréquence des feux observée au cours du dernier siècle et les tendances spatiales de la biomasse aérienne totale, à l’exception de la biomasse à la limite nord des arbres qui est surestimée. Les trajectoires des feux et de la végétation simulées sur l'Holocène sont décalées spatialement par rapport aux reconstructions paléoécologiques et serait dû aux données climatiques IPSL-CM5A-LR fournies en entrée du modèle. La variabilité climatique et les impacts de foudre sont les facteurs déterminants de la répartition de la fréquence des feux au cours du 20ème siècle alors que les rétroactions de la végétation sur les feux contrôlent la distribution de leur fréquence sur de longues échelles de temps. Nos résultats contredisent l’augmentation prévue du risque de feu futur, suggérant plutôt une diminution de la fréquence des feux d’ici 2100, surtout dans le sud, associée à une augmentation de la proportion des taxons feuillus et à une ouverture des paysages qui devraient limiter les allumages et la propagation des feux. Dans les zones les plus méridionales, l’effet fertilisant de l’augmentation des concentrations en CO2 atmosphériques sur la productivité forestière ne compensera pas les pertes de biomasse causées par les feux de forêt et les épisodes de mortalité attribuables aux sécheresses. En 2100, la baisse des stocks de biomasse et l’enfeuillement au sud de la LNFA pourraient menacer l’économie du secteur forestier. Des pratiques sylvicoles préservant la productivité et la résilience de la forêt sont donc à recommander pour permettre une gestion durable des forêts. Changes in forest composition and structure are projected in response to the future climate likely more conducive to fire and water stress. A decrease in carbon and biomass stocks could significantly affect the forest industry and global warming by high carbon emissions during fires. However, despite its ecological and socio-economic importance, the future of the forest is uncertain because the impacts of climate change on ecosystem processes and standing biomass are still poorly understood. The primary objective is therefore to assess the potential effects of climate change on vegetation dynamics and fires, and to characterize their joint effects on the resilience of eastern Canada's boreal forest on both sides of the northern limit of managed forests (NLMF). Simulations were carried out with the LPJ-LMfire dynamic global vegetation model and focused on three specific objectives: (1) to reconstruct fire activity during the 20th century and analyze changes in spatial and temporal fire trends related to vegetation and climate, (2) to analyze the forest response projection to climate change and to fire increase to assess if abrupt changes in biomass of dominant species could occur, (3) to simulate trajectories of past fires and vegetation in response to Holocene climatic variations to understand the relationship between climate, fire and vegetation. For the first time, simulations are performed on the eastern boreal forest with LPJ-LMfire over 6000 years and at high spatial resolution (100 km 2) over a study area stretching west to east, from Manitoba to Newfoundland. The plant functional types for the four dominant tree genera (Picea, Abies, Pinus, Populus) have been parameterized. The predictive capabilities of the model were tested over the 20th century by comparing simulated annual rates of combustion and biomass with independent observations. The same variables, simulated over the past 6,000 years, have been compared to paleoecological reconstructions from lacustrine records of microcharcoals and pollen. Finally, the present version of LPJ-LMfire has been used with IPCC climate scenarios to analyze trajectories along the 21st century. The results show that LPJ-LMfire correctly reproduces the spatio-temporal trends in fire frequency observed in the 20th century, particularly in Manitoba and Ontario. The simulated spatial distribution of plant biomass is also consistent with observations, except at the northern limit of trees where it is overestimated, especially for Picea. The trajectories of simulated fires and vegetation over the last 6,000 years were spatially shifted compared to paleoecological reconstructions: too far south in the west and too far north in the east. The observed difference would be due to the IPSL-CM5A-LR climate data provided as input of LPJ-LMfire. Climate variability and lightning impacts are the determining factors in the distribution of fire frequency during the 20th century, while vegetation feedbacks on fires control the distribution of their frequency over long time scales. Our results contradict the predicted increase in future fire risk, suggesting a decrease in fire frequency by 2100, especially in the south, associated with an increase in the proportion of deciduous taxa and an opening of landscapes that should limit ignition and spread of fires. The frequency and intensity of droughts induced by climate change are expected to increase and favor tree mortality south of the NLMF. Rising temperatures and atmospheric CO2 will only temporarily increase forest productivity. By 2100, declining biomass stocks and increasing broadleaf proportion south of the NLMF could threaten the economy of the forest sector. Silvicultural practices that preserve productivity and boreal forest resilience are therefore recommended to maintain sustainable forest management.

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    Hal
    Doctoral thesis . 2018
    Data sources: Hal
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    HAL-IRD
    Doctoral thesis . 2018
    Data sources: HAL-IRD
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      Hal
      Doctoral thesis . 2018
      Data sources: Hal
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      HAL-IRD
      Doctoral thesis . 2018
      Data sources: HAL-IRD
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    Authors: Bonnet, Marion;

    Dans le monde, les écosystèmes, notamment les forêts, sont mis à mal par les activités anthropiques. La souveraineté étatique, le développement économique, les incendies, le développement durable et la commercialisation de produits ligneux nationale et internationale sont tout autant de motivations économiques à l’origine des déforestations intensives. Bien qu’il n’existe pas, à ce jour, de régime international spécifiquement dédié aux forêts, ces dernières sont prises en compte de manière plus ou moins directe. La communauté internationale met en place une multitude de mécanismes juridiques internationaux et régionaux de protection et de commercialisation dans cet objectif. Également, le droit international propose diverses actions, qui prennent la forme de législation, de répression, de programmes internationaux et nationaux éducatifs, facultatifs et incitatifs. Les forêts sont alors instrumentalisées par ces mécanismes internationaux afin de résoudre les différentes problématiques actuelles liées aux changements climatiques, à la baisse de la biodiversité, à la sécheresse ou à la commercialisation. Le travail qui suit s’attardera sur l’étude du cas de la forêt amazonienne brésilienne et cherchera à déterminer si les mécanismes de droit internationaux permettent de protéger les forêts tropicales tout en poursuivant leurs objectifs. All over the world, ecosystems – and forests in particular – are under threat from human activities. State sovereignty, economic developments, fires, sustainable development and the marketing of wood products both nationally and internationally are all economic motivations behind intensive deforestation. Although there is currently no international regime specifically dedicated to forests, they are taken into account in a more or less direct way. The international community is setting up a multitude of international and regional legal mechanisms to protect and market forests. International law also proposes a variety of actions, in the form of legislation, repression, and international and national educational, voluntary and incentive programs. Forests are then instrumentalized by these international mechanisms to solve the various current problems linked to climate change, biodiversity loss, drought or commercialization. The following work will focus on the case of the Brazilian Amazon rainforest and will seek to determine whether international legal mechanisms can protect tropical forests while pursuing their objectives.

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    Authors: Le Serrec, Annaïch;

    Les travaux entrepris dans le cadre de la présente thèse portent sur l’analyse de l’équivalence terminologique en corpus parallèle et en corpus comparable. Plus spécifiquement, nous nous intéressons aux corpus de textes spécialisés appartenant au domaine du changement climatique. Une des originalités de cette étude réside dans l’analyse des équivalents de termes simples. Les bases théoriques sur lesquelles nous nous appuyons sont la terminologie textuelle (Bourigault et Slodzian 1999) et l’approche lexico-sémantique (L’Homme 2005). Cette étude poursuit deux objectifs. Le premier est d’effectuer une analyse comparative de l’équivalence dans les deux types de corpus afin de vérifier si l’équivalence terminologique observable dans les corpus parallèles se distingue de celle que l’on trouve dans les corpus comparables. Le deuxième consiste à comparer dans le détail les équivalents associés à un même terme anglais, afin de les décrire et de les répertorier pour en dégager une typologie. L’analyse détaillée des équivalents français de 343 termes anglais est menée à bien grâce à l’exploitation d’outils informatiques (extracteur de termes, aligneur de textes, etc.) et à la mise en place d’une méthodologie rigoureuse divisée en trois parties. La première partie qui est commune aux deux objectifs de la recherche concerne l’élaboration des corpus, la validation des termes anglais et le repérage des équivalents français dans les deux corpus. La deuxième partie décrit les critères sur lesquels nous nous appuyons pour comparer les équivalents des deux types de corpus. La troisième partie met en place la typologie des équivalents associés à un même terme anglais. Les résultats pour le premier objectif montrent que sur les 343 termes anglais analysés, les termes présentant des équivalents critiquables dans les deux corpus sont relativement peu élevés (12), tandis que le nombre de termes présentant des similitudes d’équivalence entre les corpus est très élevé (272 équivalents identiques et 55 équivalents non critiquables). L’analyse comparative décrite dans ce chapitre confirme notre hypothèse selon laquelle la terminologie employée dans les corpus parallèles ne se démarque pas de celle des corpus comparables. Les résultats pour le deuxième objectif montrent que de nombreux termes anglais sont rendus par plusieurs équivalents (70 % des termes analysés). Il est aussi constaté que ce ne sont pas les synonymes qui forment le groupe le plus important des équivalents, mais les quasi-synonymes. En outre, les équivalents appartenant à une autre partie du discours constituent une part importante des équivalents. Ainsi, la typologie élaborée dans cette thèse présente des mécanismes de l’équivalence terminologique peu décrits aussi systématiquement dans les travaux antérieurs. The research undertaken for this thesis concerns the analysis of terminological equivalence in a parallel corpus and a comparable corpus. More specifically, we focus on specialized texts related to the domain of climate change. A unique aspect of this study is based on the analysis of the equivalents of single word terms. The theoretical frameworks on which we rely are the terminologie textuelle (Bourigault et Slodzian 1999) and the lexico-sémantique approaches (L’Homme 2005). This study has two objectives. The first is to perform a comparative analysis of terminological equivalents in the two types of corpora in order to verify if the equivalents found in the parallel corpus are different from the ones observed in the comparable corpora. The second is to compare in detail equivalents associated with a same English term, in order to describe them and define a typology. A detailed analysis of the French equivalents of 343 English terms is carried out with the help of computer tools (term extractor, text aligner, etc.) and the establishment of a rigorous methodology divided into three parts. The first part, common to both objectives of the research concerns the elaboration of the corpus, the validation of the English terms and the identification of the French equivalents in the two corpora. The second part describes the criteria on which we rely to compare the equivalents of the two types of corpora. The third part sets up the typology of equivalents associated with a same English term. The results for the first objective shows that of the 343 English words analyzed, terms with equivalents that can be criticized in both corpora are relatively low in number (12), while the number of terms with similar equivalences between the two corpora is very high (272 identical and 55 equivalents not objectionable). The analysis described in this chapter confirms our hypothesis that terminology used in parallel corpora does not differ from that used in comparable corpora. The results of the second objective show that many English terms are rendered by several equivalents (70% of analyzed terms). It is also noted that synonyms are not the largest group of equivalents but near-synonyms. Also, equivalents from another part of speech constitute an important part of the equivalents analyzed. Thus, the typology developed in this thesis presents terminological equivalent mechanisms rarely described as systematically in previous work.

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    Authors: Aguiar, Lazar;

    Au cours des 50 dernières années, l’Afrique de l’Ouest a subi une des plus fortes variations de la pluviométrie observées à l’échelle du Globe. Ces fluctuations climatiques ont non seulement affecté le régime des précipitations mais elles ont également engendré des conséquences sur les ressources hydrologiques et végétales. Cette thèse traite de la variabilité climatique et de ses conséquences sur les ressources en eau et la dynamique des zones humides notamment des Niayes 2 du Sénégal au cours de la période comprise entre 1950 et 2004.La thèse s’articule autour de trois volets. Le premier est une caractérisation inter- annuelle et quotidienne de la variabilité climatique par l’analyse de tendance de quelques indices de variabilité et d’extrêmes de précipitations. Le second volet porte sur la réponse des systèmes hydrogéologiques des Niayes à la variabilité pluviométrique par une analyse inter-annuelle (1958-2002) et intra-annuelle du niveau de la nappe. Deux exemples extrêmes sont analysés pour illustrer le phénomène: l’année excédentaire de 1958 et l’année déficitaire de 1974. Enfin, l’impact de la variabilité hydro-climatologique sur les zones humides a été estimé à partir d’un suivi de l’évolution des zones humides via l’analyse diachronique de photographies aériennes des années 1954, 1974 et 2000.Les résultats de l’étude montrent que le déficit pluviométrique enregistré dans la région des Niayes depuis la fin des années 1960 est lié à une réduction du nombre de jours pluvieux (2j/10 ans en moyenne) et une hausse du nombre maximum de jours secs consécutifs (4j/10 ans en moyenne) au cours de la saison de mousson entre avril et octobre. Le nombre de jours dépassant les fortes valeurs de précipitations (par rapport au 90 e centile) a également subi une baisse. Par contre, les précipitations cumulées sur trois jours atteignent souvent le 1⁄4 du cumul annuel ce qui confirme le rôle joué par les événements extrêmes sur l’intensité moyenne et les cumuls mensuels ou saisonniers des précipitations. En plus d’une réduction de la durée de la saison pluvieuse qui est passée de plus de cinq mois à près de trois mois entre 1950 et 2004, les précipitations ont davantage baissé au Sud qu’au Nord, induisant une réduction du gradient Sud-Nord.La Nappe des Sables Quaternaires est actuellement à un niveau extrêmement bas résultant d’une longue période pluviométrique déficitaire. Le maximum piézométrique est passé, sur l’ensemble de la région, de +55 m en moyenne en 1958 à +22 m en 1994 (au dessus du niveau 0 de la mer). Les plus fortes variations sont enregistrées au cours des années 1970 et 1980 - notamment au sud de la région des Niayes - avec -0.60 m tous les dix ans. Le bilan hydrologique de l’année 1974 suggère que les facteurs naturels sont les principales causes de déstockage de la nappe avec 96% des sorties dont 89% par évapotranspiration. À l’échelle saisonnière, la recharge de la nappe dépend de la fréquence, de l’intensité et de la durée des précipitations et des séquences sèches à l’intérieur de la saison pluvieuse plus que du cumul annuel. En année de précipitations excédentaires (1958), le temps de recharge est de 5 à 7 mois contrairement en année «sèche» (1974) où les fluctuations piézométriques sont quasi nulles.La dégradation actuelle des conditions hydro-climatiques se manifeste par un asséchement progressif de zones humides. Sur l’ensemble de la région des Niayes, la superficie des zones inondées en permanence est passée de plus de 1000 ha en 1954 à moins de 170 ha en 1974 pour atteindre environ 50 ha en 1982. En 2000, aucune zone inondée en permanence n’est perceptible. Dans le secteur de Mboro (15°9 N - 16°54 W) les zones inondées en permanence se sont transformées progressivement en sols à hydromorphie partielle. La «reprise pluviométrique» observée à la fin des années 1990 n’a pas initié une réapparition en surface de la nappe qui subit un «effet mémoire» dû aux déficits pluviométriques répétés. During 50 last years, West Africa has been undergoing one of the most significant variations in rainfall observed around the globe. These climatic fluctuations have not only affected the characteristics of precipitations but also the hydrogeologic and forest resources considering their major effects on the agricultural ones of the area. This thesis examines climate variability and its consequences on water resources and the dynamic of wetlands, particularly Niayes 3 in Senegal during the period between 1950 and 2004.The thesis is based on three components. The first is an inter-annual and daily characterization of climate variability through a trend analysis of several variability indices and precipitation extremes. The second deals with the response of Niayes’ hydrogeological systems’ to rainfall variations through an inter-annual analysis (1958-2002) and an intra-annual analysis of the water table level. Two extreme examples are analyzed in order to illustrate the phenomenon: The excessive rainfall year of 1958 and the deficient rainfall year of 1974. Finally, the impact of hydro- climatological variability on wet zones is estimated based on monitoring of changes to soil use via an analysis of aerial photographs from 1954, 1974 and 2000.The results show that the rainfall deficit recorded in the Niayes’ since the end of the year 1960 is related to a reduction of the number of rainy days (2j/10 years on average) and a rise of the maximum number of consecutive dry days (4j/10 years on average) during the monsoon season between April and October. The number of days exceeding high precipitation values (compared to the 90th percentile) also decreased. However, cumulative three-day precipitation totals frequently reached 1⁄4 of the annual total, which confirms the role played by extreme events on the average intensity and monthly or seasonal totals of precipitation. In addition to a reduction in the length of the rainy season from more than five months to close to three months between 1950 and 2004, precipitation decreased more substantially in the South than the North, resulting in a reduction of the South-North gradient.The Quaternary water table is currently at an extremely low level, due to a long period of insufficient rainfall. The piezometric maximum for the region as a whole went from an average of +55 m in 1958 to +22 m in 1994 (above the sea level 0 value). The greatest variations were recorded in the 1970s and 1980s - particularly in the south of the Niayes region - with -0.60 m every 10 years. The hydrological total for 1974 suggests that natural factors are the main causes of depletion of the water table with 96% of outflows, including 89% by evapotranspiration. On a seasonal scale, the water table recharge depends on the frequency, intensity and the length of precipitation and dry sequences within the rainy season more than the annual total. In a «rainy year» (1958), the recharge time was between 5 and 7 months compared to a «dry year» (1974) when piezometric fluctuations were nil.The current degradation of hydro-climactic conditions is demonstrated by a progressive drying out of wetlands. For the entire Niayes region, the area of permanently flooded areas went from more than 1.000 ha in 1954 to less than 170 ha in 1974 to reach approximately 50 ha in 1982. In 2000, no ponds were noticeable in the region. In the Mboro area (15°9 N - 16°54 W) permanently flooded zones have gradually transformed into partial hydromorph soils. The «rain recovery» observed in the late 1990s did not lead to a surface reappearance of the water table which is undergoing a «memory effect» due to repeated rain deficits.

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    Hal
    Doctoral thesis . 2008
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      Doctoral thesis . 2008
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    Authors: Atif, M. R.;

    11e Congrès de l'Association Québecoise pour la Maîtrise de l'Énergie: 03 April 1997, Mont Tremblant, Québec

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