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Points out that sustainability as such does not provide a clearcut guide to policy. First one has to decide what is to be sustained. If this is agreed, it must be in an operational from. However, difficulties may still emerge since opinions may differ about how to achieve. This is illustrated by differences in the views of economists about how sustainable development is to be achieved. Orthodox economists stress the importance of the accumulation of man-made capital to achieve this end whereas neo-Malthusians stress the importance of conserving natural resource and environmental capital. Both take an anthropocentric point of view. For political reasons the neo-Malthusian has had little support but it may eventually turn out to be correct. Economics is concerned with reducing economic scarcity and economists have traditionally suggested four main ways of doing this of which economic growth is one. However, neo-Malthusian economists believe that this may not be a sustainable strategy – it may result in future poverty. It should be noted that economic systems are embedded in social and natural systems and depend on these. Economic sustainability depends on the sustainability of these other systems. So from this point of view, it is just one of several bottom lines. Values must be considered in relation to sustainability. Economics is completely anthropocentric in its approach. Therefore, economic approaches to conservation and sustainability can be at odds with the values of deep ecologists or those willing to accord rights to other sentient beings or ecosystems independent of human wishes, or those who want to make use of value judgments other than those based on the measuring rod of money. Consequently economics evaluation is sometimes ineffective in resolving social conflict, including conflict about what should be sustained. As a rule economics alone should not be the final arbiter of social decisions. It is a part (often an important part) of the social evaluation process but not the bottom line, or just one of many lines.

Points out that sustainability as such does not provide a clearcut guide to policy. First one has to decide what is to be sustained. If this is agreed, it must be in an operational from. However, difficulties may still emerge since opinions may differ about how to achieve. This is illustrated by differences in the views of economists about how sustainable development is to be achieved. Orthodox economists stress the importance of the accumulation of man-made capital to achieve this end whereas neo-Malthusians stress the importance of conserving natural resource and environmental capital. Both take an anthropocentric point of view. For political reasons the neo-Malthusian has had little support but it may eventually turn out to be correct. Economics is concerned with reducing economic scarcity and economists have traditionally suggested four main ways of doing this of which economic growth is one. However, neo-Malthusian economists believe that this may not be a sustainable strategy – it may result in future poverty. It should be noted that economic systems are embedded in social and natural systems and depend on these. Economic sustainability depends on the sustainability of these other systems. So from this point of view, it is just one of several bottom lines. Values must be considered in relation to sustainability. Economics is completely anthropocentric in its approach. Therefore, economic approaches to conservation and sustainability can be at odds with the values of deep ecologists or those willing to accord rights to other sentient beings or ecosystems independent of human wishes, or those who want to make use of value judgments other than those based on the measuring rod of money. Consequently economics evaluation is sometimes ineffective in resolving social conflict, including conflict about what should be sustained. As a rule economics alone should not be the final arbiter of social decisions. It is a part (often an important part) of the social evaluation process but not the bottom line, or just one of many lines.

The search for energy security is one of the key dynamics that is re-shaping politics and governance in the twenty-first century, particularly throughout Asia and the emerging economies of the global South. With extraordinary growth rates of energy consumption predicted for many regions there is a need to critically re-assess the concept of energy security and its central focus on the needs of nation-states. Although theoretical approaches to human and environmental security have lifted the referent object away from the state the importance of energy to the military and economic power of modern industrialised states has ensured that the concept of energy security has remained almost exclusively state-centric. As with other aspects of security, however, the state is often not the best means of pursuing energy security for marginalised individuals or communities, particularly in non-democratic states. This paper therefore reviews the existing security literature and argues that a more critical approach, as one component of a critical environmental security framework, is needed to challenge the injustices that confront marginalised communities throughout the global South. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The search for energy security is one of the key dynamics that is re-shaping politics and governance in the twenty-first century, particularly throughout Asia and the emerging economies of the global South. With extraordinary growth rates of energy consumption predicted for many regions there is a need to critically re-assess the concept of energy security and its central focus on the needs of nation-states. Although theoretical approaches to human and environmental security have lifted the referent object away from the state the importance of energy to the military and economic power of modern industrialised states has ensured that the concept of energy security has remained almost exclusively state-centric. As with other aspects of security, however, the state is often not the best means of pursuing energy security for marginalised individuals or communities, particularly in non-democratic states. This paper therefore reviews the existing security literature and argues that a more critical approach, as one component of a critical environmental security framework, is needed to challenge the injustices that confront marginalised communities throughout the global South. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The IPCC stresses the importance of achieving net-zero CO2 emissions worldwide by 2050 and natural climate solutions, particularly carbon farming, can play a significant role in this goal. However, current markets do not account for environmental externalities, which creates a mismatch between individual costs and societal benefits. Payment systems linked to carbon farming practices could help bridge this gap. Research is essential to develop effective agricultural carbon markets, and this study focuses on the opportunities and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in these markets. The research examines four areas: agricultural markets as a funding source for carbon farming, payments for carbon sequestration, opportunities for smallholder farmers, and cost-effective monitoring and verification of carbon stocks. Further research is needed to monitor carbon sequestration accurately, reduce GHG emissions, and develop institutional arrangements to promote sustainable production methods in Africa.

The IPCC stresses the importance of achieving net-zero CO2 emissions worldwide by 2050 and natural climate solutions, particularly carbon farming, can play a significant role in this goal. However, current markets do not account for environmental externalities, which creates a mismatch between individual costs and societal benefits. Payment systems linked to carbon farming practices could help bridge this gap. Research is essential to develop effective agricultural carbon markets, and this study focuses on the opportunities and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in these markets. The research examines four areas: agricultural markets as a funding source for carbon farming, payments for carbon sequestration, opportunities for smallholder farmers, and cost-effective monitoring and verification of carbon stocks. Further research is needed to monitor carbon sequestration accurately, reduce GHG emissions, and develop institutional arrangements to promote sustainable production methods in Africa.

In the last two decades, studies that analyse the political economy of sustainable energy transitions have increasingly become available. Yet very few attempts have been made to synthesize the factors discussed in the growing literature. This paper reviews the extant empirical literature on the political economy of sustainable energy transitions. Using a well-defined search strategy, a total of 36 empirical contributions covering the period 2008 to 2022 are reviewed full text. Overall, the findings highlight the role of vested interest, advocacy coalitions and green constituencies, path dependency, external shocks, policy and institutional environment, political institutions and fossil fuel resource endowments as major political economy factors influencing sustainable energy transitions across both high income countries, and low and middle income countries. In addition, the paper highlights and discusses some critical knowledge gaps in the existing literature and provides suggestions for a future research agenda. IZNE Working Paper Series; Nr. 23/3

In the last two decades, studies that analyse the political economy of sustainable energy transitions have increasingly become available. Yet very few attempts have been made to synthesize the factors discussed in the growing literature. This paper reviews the extant empirical literature on the political economy of sustainable energy transitions. Using a well-defined search strategy, a total of 36 empirical contributions covering the period 2008 to 2022 are reviewed full text. Overall, the findings highlight the role of vested interest, advocacy coalitions and green constituencies, path dependency, external shocks, policy and institutional environment, political institutions and fossil fuel resource endowments as major political economy factors influencing sustainable energy transitions across both high income countries, and low and middle income countries. In addition, the paper highlights and discusses some critical knowledge gaps in the existing literature and provides suggestions for a future research agenda. IZNE Working Paper Series; Nr. 23/3

Electrochemical capacitors (ECs), also known as supercapacitors, are recognized as a key technology that will enable miniaturized self-powered systems, which will constitute the hardware base nodes of the internet of things (IoT), the internet of everything (IoE) and the tactile internet. Systems employing ECs can be designed to be maintenance-free thanks to the ultra-long cycling stability of ECs. Besides the function as a main or backup energy storage unit, advanced ECs can be used to support batteries at peak power load and they can be a substitute for conventional electrolytic capacitors used in a.c. line filtering, with clear advantages for system down-sizing due to their superior capacitance density. However, a number of challenges remain to be solved to advance the development of ECs for miniature systems. Regarding the performance as a competitor to e.g. batteries, the ECs suffer from inferior energy density, low working voltage, severe self-discharge and leakage current. For IoT systems embedded in a harsh environment, the ability to enduring extreme temperature is inadequate for most general-purpose ECs. The response at high frequency needs to be enhanced to enable functions such as a.c. line filtering. As for encapsulation and integration, novel concepts are appreciated for compatibility with surface mount technology and reflow soldering, allowing convenient adaption in the form factor and making possible an arbitrary choice of EC materials (electrodes, electrolytes and separators). To address the challenges, the thesis (1) explores the utilization of the redox electrolyte KBr to enhance the energy density of EDLCs; (2) adopts an ionic liquid electrolyte EMImAc to achieve working temperature beyond 120 °C; (3) uses an advanced graphite/VACNTs material for high-frequency ECs as a.c. line filters and low loss storage units in microsystems; (4) develops a bipolar EC prototype that doubles the working voltage limit; (5) mitigates the self-discharge and leakage current through the liquid crystal additive in an electrolyte; and (6) presents a cellulose-derived carbon nanofiber-based electrode material with enhanced capacitive performance. Generic strategies and methods to address each identified challenge are provided in the thesis, highlighting a step-by-step optimization route starting from the material properties, moving on to the electrode structures, and further to the device design.