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Model projections show that production of high-value products from microalgae could be profitable nowadays and commodities will become profitable within 10 years.

Avoiding irreversible climate change as effectively as possible is one of the most pressing challenges of society. Carbon pricing that is uniformly valid on a global and cross-sectoral basis represents a cost-efficient policy tool to meet this challenge. Carbon pricing allows external costs to be allocated or internalized on a polluter-pays principle. It is shown that a global emissions cap-and-trade system is the most suitable market-based instrument for reducing global emissions levels, in line with the temperature goal set by the Paris Agreement. A proposal for its design is presented in this paper. This instrument encourages worldwide measures, with the lowest marginal abatement cost, according to a pre-defined reduction path. Thereby, it ensures compliance with a specified remaining carbon budget to meet a certain temperature limit in a cost-efficient manner. Possible reduction paths are presented in this paper. Weaknesses in the design of existing emissions trading systems (ETS), such as the EU ETS, are identified and avoided in the proposed instrument. The framework solves several problems of today’s climate change policies, like the free rider problem, carbon leakage, rebound effects or the green paradox. The introduction of a global uniform carbon pricing instrument and its concrete design should be the subject of policy, especially at the United Nations climate change conferences, as soon as possible in order to allow for rapid implementation. If a global ETS with a uniform carbon price could be introduced, additional governmental regulations with regard to carbon emissions would become obsolete.

Pour obtenir un aperçu spécifique des rôles que les micro-organismes pourraient jouer dans la stéatose hépatique non alcoolique (NAFLD), certaines bactéries intestinales et lactiques et une levure (Anaerostipes caccae, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, Bifidobacterium longum, Enterococcus fecalis, Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus plantarum, Weissella confusa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) ont été caractérisées par une chromatographie liquide haute performance pour la production d'éthanol lorsqu'elles sont cultivées sur différents glucides : hexoses (glucose et fructose), pentoses (arabinose et ribose), disaccharides (lactose et lactulose) et inuline. Les quantités les plus élevées d'éthanol ont été produites par S. cerevisiae, L. fermentum et W. confusa sur le glucose et par S. cerevisiae et W. confusa sur le fructose. En raison de la mannitol-déshydrogénase exprimée dans L. fermentum, la production d'éthanol sur le fructose a été significativement réduite (P < 0,05). Le pyruvate et le citrate, deux accepteurs d'électrons potentiels pour la régénération du NAD+/NADP+, ont considérablement réduit la production d'éthanol avec de l'acétate produit à la place dans L. fermentum cultivé sur glucose et W. confusa cultivé sur glucose et fructose, respectivement. Dans les boues fécales préparées à partir des matières fécales de quatre volontaires en surpoids, on a constaté que l'éthanol était produit lors de l'ajout de fructose. L'ajout d'A. caccae, L. acidophilus, L. fermentum, ainsi que de citrate et de pyruvate, respectivement, a aboli la production d'éthanol. Cependant, l'ajout de W. confusa a entraîné une augmentation significative (P < 0,05) de la production d'éthanol. Ces résultats indiquent que des micro-organismes comme W. confusa, une bactérie lactique hétéro-fermentaire, négative à la mannitol-déshydrogénase, peuvent favoriser la NAFLD par l'éthanol produit à partir de la fermentation du sucre, tandis que d'autres bactéries intestinales et des bactéries lactiques homo- et hétéro-fermentaires mais positives à la mannitol-déshydrogénase peuvent ne pas favoriser la NAFLD. En outre, nos études indiquent que les facteurs alimentaires interférant avec le microbiote gastro-intestinal et le métabolisme microbien peuvent être importants dans la prévention ou la promotion de la NAFLD. Para obtener información específica sobre los roles que podrían desempeñar los microorganismos en la enfermedad del hígado graso no alcohólico (NAFLD, por sus siglas en inglés), algunas bacterias intestinales y del ácido láctico y una levadura (Anaerostipes caccae, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, Bifidobacterium longum, Enterococcus fecalis, Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus plantarum, Weissella confusa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) se caracterizaron por cromatografía líquida de alto rendimiento para la producción de etanol cuando se cultivaron en diferentes carbohidratos: hexosas (glucosa y fructosa), pentosas (arabinosa y ribosa), disacáridos (lactosa y lactulosa) e inulina. Las cantidades más altas de etanol fueron producidas por S. cerevisiae, L. fermentum y W. confusa en glucosa y por S. cerevisiae y W. confusa en fructosa. Debido a la manitol-deshidrogenasa expresada en L. fermentum, la producción de etanol en fructosa se redujo significativamente (P < 0.05). El piruvato y el citrato, dos aceptores de electrones potenciales para la regeneración de NAD+/NADP+, redujeron drásticamente la producción de etanol con acetato producido en su lugar en L. fermentum cultivado en glucosa y W. confusa cultivado en glucosa y fructosa, respectivamente. En suspensiones fecales preparadas a partir de heces de cuatro voluntarios con sobrepeso, se encontró que el etanol se producía tras la adición de fructosa. La adición de A. caccae, L. acidophilus, L. fermentum, así como citrato y piruvato, respectivamente, abolió la producción de etanol. Sin embargo, la adición de W. confusa resultó en un aumento significativo (P < 0.05) de la producción de etanol. Estos resultados indican que microorganismos como W. confusa, una bacteria de ácido láctico hetero-fermentativa, negativa para manitol-deshidrogenasa, pueden promover NAFLD a través del etanol producido a partir de la fermentación de azúcar, mientras que otras bacterias intestinales y bacterias de ácido láctico homo- y hetero-fermentativas pero positivas para manitol-deshidrogenasa pueden no promover NAFLD. Además, nuestros estudios indican que los factores dietéticos que interfieren con la microbiota gastrointestinal y el metabolismo microbiano pueden ser importantes para prevenir o promover la EHGNA. To gain some specific insight into the roles microorganisms might play in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), some intestinal and lactic acid bacteria and one yeast (Anaerostipes caccae, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, Bifidobacterium longum, Enterococcus fecalis, Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus plantarum, Weissella confusa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were characterized by high performance liquid chromatography for production of ethanol when grown on different carbohydrates: hexoses (glucose and fructose), pentoses (arabinose and ribose), disaccharides (lactose and lactulose), and inulin. Highest amounts of ethanol were produced by S. cerevisiae, L. fermentum and W. confusa on glucose and by S. cerevisiae and W. confusa on fructose. Due to mannitol-dehydrogenase expressed in L. fermentum, ethanol production on fructose was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced. Pyruvate and citrate, two potential electron acceptors for regeneration of NAD+/NADP+, drastically reduced ethanol production with acetate produced instead in L. fermentum grown on glucose and W. confusa grown on glucose and fructose, respectively. In fecal slurries prepared from feces of four overweight volunteers, ethanol was found to be produced upon addition of fructose. Addition of A. caccae, L. acidophilus, L. fermentum, as well as citrate and pyruvate, respectively, abolished ethanol production. However, addition of W. confusa resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) increased production of ethanol. These results indicate that microorganisms like W. confusa, a hetero-fermentative, mannitol-dehydrogenase negative lactic acid bacterium, may promote NAFLD through ethanol produced from sugar fermentation, while other intestinal bacteria and homo- and hetero-fermentative but mannitol-dehydrogenase positive lactic acid bacteria may not promote NAFLD. Also, our studies indicate that dietary factors interfering with gastrointestinal microbiota and microbial metabolism may be important in preventing or promoting NAFLD. لاكتساب بعض الأفكار المحددة حول الأدوار التي قد تلعبها الكائنات الحية الدقيقة في مرض الكبد الدهني غير الكحولي (NAFLD)، تميزت بعض بكتيريا حمض الأمعاء واللاكتيك وخميرة واحدة (Anaerostipes caccae، Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron، Bifidobacterium longum، Enterococcus fecalis، Escherichia coli، Lactobacillus acidophilus، Lactobacillus fermentum، Lactobacillus plantarum، Weissella confusa، Saccharomyces cerevisiae) بتصوير سائل عالي الأداء لإنتاج الإيثانول عند زراعته على كربوهيدرات مختلفة: hexoses (الجلوكوز والفركتوز)، pentoses (الأرابينوز والريبوز)، disaccharides (اللاكتوز واللاكتولوز)، و inulin. تم إنتاج أعلى كميات من الإيثانول بواسطة S. cerevisiae و L. fermentum و W. confusa على الجلوكوز و S. cerevisiae و W. confusa على الفركتوز. بسبب نازعة هيدروجين المانيتول المعبر عنها في L. fermentum، انخفض إنتاج الإيثانول على الفركتوز بشكل كبير (P < 0.05). قلل البيروفات والسيترات، وهما مستقبلان محتملان للإلكترون لتجديد NAD +/NADP+، بشكل كبير من إنتاج الإيثانول مع الأسيتات المنتجة بدلاً من ذلك في L. fermentum المزروع على الجلوكوز و W. confusa المزروع على الجلوكوز والفركتوز، على التوالي. في الملاط البرازي الذي تم تحضيره من براز أربعة متطوعين يعانون من زيادة الوزن، وجد أن الإيثانول يتم إنتاجه عند إضافة الفركتوز. إضافة A. caccae، L. acidophilus، L. fermentum، وكذلك السترات والبيروفات، على التوالي، ألغت إنتاج الإيثانول. ومع ذلك، أدت إضافة W. confusa إلى زيادة كبيرة في إنتاج الإيثانول (P < 0.05). تشير هذه النتائج إلى أن الكائنات الحية الدقيقة مثل W. confusa، وهي بكتيريا حمض اللاكتيك السلبية غير المتجانسة، قد تعزز NAFLD من خلال الإيثانول المنتج من تخمير السكر، في حين أن البكتيريا المعوية الأخرى وبكتيريا حمض اللاكتيك الإيجابية غير المتجانسة ولكن غير المتجانسة قد لا تعزز NAFLD. أيضًا، تشير دراساتنا إلى أن العوامل الغذائية التي تتداخل مع الكائنات الحية الدقيقة في الجهاز الهضمي والتمثيل الغذائي الميكروبي قد تكون مهمة في منع أو تعزيز NAFLD.

Abstract. Regional land carbon budgets provide insights on the spatial distribution of the land uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and can be used to evaluate carbon cycle models and to define baselines for land-based additional mitigation efforts. The scientific community has been involved in providing observation-based estimates of regional carbon budgets either by downscaling atmospheric CO2 observations into surface fluxes with atmospheric inversions, by using inventories of carbon stock changes in terrestrial ecosystems, by upscaling local field observations such as flux towers with gridded climate and remote sensing fields or by integrating data-driven or process-oriented terrestrial carbon cycle models. The first coordinated attempt to collect regional carbon budgets for nine regions covering the entire globe in the RECCAP-1 project has delivered estimates for the decade 2000–2009, but these budgets were not comparable between regions, due to different definitions and component fluxes reported or omitted. The recent recognition of lateral fluxes of carbon by human activities and rivers, that connect CO2 uptake in one area with its release in another also requires better definition and protocols to reach harmonized regional budgets that can be summed up to the globe and compared with the atmospheric CO2 growth rate and inversion results. In this study, for the international initiative RECCAP-2 coordinated by the Global Carbon Project, which aims as an update of regional carbon budgets over the last two decades based on observations, for 10 regions covering the globe, with a better harmonization that the precursor project, we provide recommendations for using atmospheric inversions results to match bottom-up carbon accounting and models, and we define the different component fluxes of the net land atmosphere carbon exchange that should be reported by each research group in charge of each region. Special attention is given to lateral fluxes, inland water fluxes and land use fluxes.

Given the global energy and environmental situation, the European Union has been issuing directives with increasingly demanding requirements in term of the energy efficiency in buildings. The international competition of sustainable houses, Solar Decathlon Europe (SDE), is aligned with these European objectives. SDE houses are low energy solar buildings that must reach the near to zero energy houses’ goal. In the 2012 edition, in order to emphasize its significance, the Energy Efficiency Contest was added. SDE houses’ interior comfort, functioning and energy performance is monitored. The monitoring data can give an idea about the efficiency of the houses. However, a jury comprised by international experts is responsible for carrying out the houses energy efficiency evaluation. Passive strategies and houses services are analyzed. Additionally, the jury's assessment has been compared with the behavior of the houses during the monitoring period. Comparative studies make emphasis on the energy aspects, houses functioning and their interior comfort. Conclusions include thoughts related with the evaluation process, the results of the comparative studies and suggestions for the next competitions.

AbstractObjective: The marked increase in the prevalence of obesity in the United States has recently been attributed to the increased fructose consumption. To determine if and how fructose might promote obesity in an animal model, we measured body composition, energy intake, energy expenditure, substrate oxidation, and several endocrine parameters related to energy homeostasis in mice consuming fructose.Research Methods and Procedures: We compared the effects of ad libitum access to fructose (15% solution in water), sucrose (10%, popular soft drink), and artificial sweetener (0% calories, popular diet soft drink) on adipogenesis and energy metabolism in mice.Results: Exposure to fructose water increased adiposity, whereas increased fat mass after consumption of soft drinks or diet soft drinks did not reach statistical significance (n = 9 each group). Total intake of energy was unaltered, because mice proportionally reduced their caloric intake from chow. There was a trend toward reduced energy expenditure and increased respiratory quotient, albeit not significant, in the fructose group. Furthermore, fructose produced a hepatic lipid accumulation with a characteristic pericentral pattern.Discussion: These data are compatible with the conclusion that a high intake of fructose selectively enhances adipogenesis, possibly through a shift of substrate use to lipogenesis.