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Abstract The main hindrances to the large-scale development of renewable-energy projects are the lack of bankability and the inability to align investments and investors with suitable financial instruments or robust policy measures. To illustrate a bankable project, this paper presents a research-based case study on the installation of solar photovoltaic panels on the rooftops of 195 trains of the Indian Railways. Detailed information on the annual running hours, exposure to sunlight, efficiency of solar photovoltaic generation and electrical power demands of each rail coach is considered to conduct a quantitative measure of the tentative amount of fossil fuel savings. The purpose is to provide insight into the types of renewable-energy projects that can be highly attractive to financial institutions and promoters due to their lucrative internal return on investment. As seen in this case study, there are annual savings in diesel of 12 323 088 litres and a CO2 reduction of 32 755 tonnes, with return on investment of 1.3 years. Furthermore, this study conducts a comprehensive analysis of the limitations of existing renewable-energy project financing mechanisms in India. Subsequently, three policy measures are recommended to develop a robust financial mechanism that can effectively meet the needs of investors and investors. These measures include increasing equity injection through a buy-and-hold strategy, providing direct tax benefits to promoters and financing through real-estate investment trusts. The findings are highly relevant to address the challenges associated with bridging the financial gap between access to finance and capital investment in the renewable-energy sector, especially for Asian countries.

Abstract The main hindrances to the large-scale development of renewable-energy projects are the lack of bankability and the inability to align investments and investors with suitable financial instruments or robust policy measures. To illustrate a bankable project, this paper presents a research-based case study on the installation of solar photovoltaic panels on the rooftops of 195 trains of the Indian Railways. Detailed information on the annual running hours, exposure to sunlight, efficiency of solar photovoltaic generation and electrical power demands of each rail coach is considered to conduct a quantitative measure of the tentative amount of fossil fuel savings. The purpose is to provide insight into the types of renewable-energy projects that can be highly attractive to financial institutions and promoters due to their lucrative internal return on investment. As seen in this case study, there are annual savings in diesel of 12 323 088 litres and a CO2 reduction of 32 755 tonnes, with return on investment of 1.3 years. Furthermore, this study conducts a comprehensive analysis of the limitations of existing renewable-energy project financing mechanisms in India. Subsequently, three policy measures are recommended to develop a robust financial mechanism that can effectively meet the needs of investors and investors. These measures include increasing equity injection through a buy-and-hold strategy, providing direct tax benefits to promoters and financing through real-estate investment trusts. The findings are highly relevant to address the challenges associated with bridging the financial gap between access to finance and capital investment in the renewable-energy sector, especially for Asian countries.

The present authors reply to the comment by Popov et al. (IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.22, no.2, p.1261, April 2007) on the original paper by Ragavan and Satish (IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.20, no.2, pt.1, p.780-8, April 2005)

The present authors reply to the comment by Popov et al. (IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.22, no.2, p.1261, April 2007) on the original paper by Ragavan and Satish (IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.20, no.2, pt.1, p.780-8, April 2005)

The diffusivity and solubility of fluorine in solid nickel were determined using the following solid-state electrochemical cells: Co + CoF2| BaF2| Ni | BaF2| Co + CoF2 Co + CoF2| CaF2| BaF2| Ni | BaF2| CaF2| Co + CoF2 In the temperature range 1023 to 1223 K, the diffusion coefficient of fluorine in solid nickel is given by: 1 $$D_F (cm^2 /s) = (2.13_{ - 1.54}^{ + 5.54} ) \times 10^{ - 3} \exp (( - 118,600 \pm 12,000J/mol)/RT)$$ The dissolution of atomic fluorine in solid nickel obeys Sieverts’ law; however, the solubility results showed considerable scatter. In the temperature range 1073 to 1223 K, the mean solubility of fluorine in solid nickel, corresponding to the equilibrium Ni + NiF2, follows the relationship: N -F S (at. pct) = 5.73 x 10-3 exp((10,850 J/mol)/RT)

The diffusivity and solubility of fluorine in solid nickel were determined using the following solid-state electrochemical cells: Co + CoF2| BaF2| Ni | BaF2| Co + CoF2 Co + CoF2| CaF2| BaF2| Ni | BaF2| CaF2| Co + CoF2 In the temperature range 1023 to 1223 K, the diffusion coefficient of fluorine in solid nickel is given by: 1 $$D_F (cm^2 /s) = (2.13_{ - 1.54}^{ + 5.54} ) \times 10^{ - 3} \exp (( - 118,600 \pm 12,000J/mol)/RT)$$ The dissolution of atomic fluorine in solid nickel obeys Sieverts’ law; however, the solubility results showed considerable scatter. In the temperature range 1073 to 1223 K, the mean solubility of fluorine in solid nickel, corresponding to the equilibrium Ni + NiF2, follows the relationship: N -F S (at. pct) = 5.73 x 10-3 exp((10,850 J/mol)/RT)

Abstract Flow behavior of particles in a two-dimensional spouted bed with a draft tube is studied using a continuous kinetic-friction stresses model. The kinetic stress of particles is predicted from kinetic theory of granular flow, while the friction stress is computed from a model proposed by Johnson et al. (1990) . A stitching function is used to smooth from the rapid shearing viscous regime to the slow shearing plastic regime. The distributions of concentration and velocities of particles are predicted in the spouted bed with a draft tube. Simulated results compare with the vertical velocity of particles ( Zhao et al., 2008 ) measured and in the spout bed with draft plates and solid circulation rate ( Ishikura et al., 2003 ) measured in the spouted bed with a draft tube. The impact of the friction stress of particles on the spout, annulus, fountain and entrancement regions is analyzed in gas–solid spouted bed with a draft tube. Numerical results show that the gas flow rate through the annulus increases with the increase of the entrainment zone. The solids circulation rate decreases with the decrease of inlet gas velocity and the height of the entrainment zone. The effect of spouting gas velocity on distributions of concentration, velocity and particle circulation is discussed.