• Energy Research

Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is a widely applied policy tool that aims to aid decision-makers in making informed, higher-quality decisions that minimize negative environmental impacts. However, different types of uncertainties complicate the ex ante assessment of environmental impacts. Literature suggests uncertainties are often not well addressed, resulting in inaccurate and even unreliable SEAs. At the same time, SEA literature offers limited guidance in how to systematically identify and deal with uncertainties. Therefore, in this paper, we present an analytical framework for characterizing and classifying different forms of uncertainty in SEA, and for identifying strategies for dealing with these uncertainties. The framework is based on literature on uncertainties in other subdomains of the environmental sciences. The framework is applied to five case studies of SEAs for spatial planning in The Netherlands in order to illustrate and critically reflect on our framework, and to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Based on these case studies we concluded the following: (1) The framework is useful for identifying uncertainties in SEA in a systematic way; (2) There is a discrepancy between how uncertainties are dealt with in theory and in practice; (3) In practice, uncertainties seem to be dealt with in a rather implicit way. The framework may help dealing with uncertainties more systematically and more proactively; (4) The most successful way of coping with uncertainties seems to be the application of multiple strategies.

The use of geologically scarce mineral resources needs to be reduced substantially in order to prevent future generations from being deprived of them. So far, there has been no international reaction to this growing problem. We argue that an international agreement on the sustainable use of geologically scarce mineral re- sources is necessary, and in particular that a number of normative principles of environmental governance, as currently codified in international environmental agreements, require such an agreement.

Communities living in coastal regions are vulnerable to flooding, salinity intrusion, and natural hazards. This is aggravated by climate change. In order to reduce this vulnerability, governments have invested heavily in developing coastal infrastructures. One type of infrastructure development regards polders (i.e., pieces of land previously subject to permanent or temporal overflow that are now surrounded by embankments that prevent inundation). The impact of polderization on livelihood vulnerability is not straightforward and is therefore still poorly understood. In order to analyze such impacts, we present a comparative case study of four polders in Bangladesh that are characterized by varying societal circumstances, hydrological conditions, hydrological interventions, and different levels of community response to polderization. How does livelihood vulnerability vary temporally and spatially in polders, and what explains such variation? We use data collected via 162 surveys, 40 semi-structured interviews, and secondary research to analyze trends in the scores of the livelihood vulnerability index. Based on our analysis, we argue that after accounting for interactions amongst variables like hydrological conditions, hydrological interventions, community response, and other societal factors, livelihood vulnerability is lower in polders characterized by higher community involvement in using hydrological interventions to control the flow of saline water.

For more than a century, the use of mineral resources has increased exponentially with annual growth percentages of between 4% and 6%. While for most mineral resources, depletion is not an issue, for some mineral resources the current level of extraction is likely to pose a problem for future generations. Depletion of a mineral resource means that its enriched deposits will have been extracted, and consequently it will become much more expensive for future generations to continue to use these minerals. While technology may reduce some of the adverse effects of depletion, future generations may be deprived of potential innovations for which these specific materials would be essential. The question arises as to how the currently unsustainable extraction of mineral resources can be decreased to safeguard them for future generations. It is submitted that it is unlikely that market forces alone will sufficiently impact the prices of minerals to resolve the unsustainable use of certain minerals timely enough. In this article, it is posited that an international agreement on the conversation and sustainable use of geologically scarce minerals is necessary. The agreement will recognize that the geological scarcity of mineral resources differs between different minerals. It will therefore make a selection of priority minerals, determine how far the extraction rate of these substances must be reduced and decide on a fixed time period within which the extraction must decrease from the current rate to a sustainable rate. The design of such an agreement will be based on two basic principles contained in existing international environmental agreements: (1) the inter-generational equity principle and (2) the principle of conservation of natural resources. Furthermore, the obligatory reduction of the extraction of mineral resources will affect the sovereign rights of resource countries to exploit their own resources. Therefore, any international agreement should make arrangements to ensure resource countries are adequately compensated for their loss of income.

Flooding is the most common of all natural disasters and accounts for large numbers of casualties and a high amount of economic damage worldwide. To be ‘flood resilient’, countries should have sufficient capacity to resist, the capacity to absorb and recover, and the capacity to transform and adapt. Based on international comparative research, we conclude that six key governance strategies will enhance ‘flood resilience’ and will secure the necessary capacities. These strategies pertain to: (i) the diversification of flood risk management approaches; (ii) the alignment of flood risk management approaches to overcome fragmentation; (iii) the involvement, cooperation, and alignment of both public and private actors in flood risk management; (iv) the presence of adequate formal rules that balance legal certainty and flexibility; (v) the assurance of sufficient financial and other types of resources; (vi) the adoption of normative principles that adequately deal with distributional effects. These governance strategies appear to be relevant across different physical and institutional contexts. The findings may also hold valuable lessons for the governance of climate adaptation more generally.

Local governments are experimenting with low-carbon initiatives (LCIs) to learn how the transition to low-carbon cities can be advanced. However, little is known about how local governments can capitalize on what has been learned and use it to accelerate scaling-up processes. This paper explores the complex relationship between LCIs and learning processes at the level of local government. The issue is examined through an explorative embedded case study in the City of Copenhagen, a sustainability frontrunner. The paper makes three contributions that enrich literature and practice concerning climate governance for sustainability transitions. First, it offers an overview of two types of knowledge that can be derived from LCIs to accelerate scaling-up processes: instrumental and transformative knowledge. Second, the paper provides a concrete overview of learning practices for governing learning processes within local government. Local governments can learn from LCIs through four categories of practice: experience accumulation, knowledge articulation, knowledge codification, and knowledge distribution. Finally, the paper offers an overview of explanatory factors related to the motivation, resources, and skills that influence a local government's capacity to learn from LCIs. The findings particularly highlight the importance of setting a mandate for experimenting with and evaluating LCIs.