• Energy Research

The generic term "chemonuclear" has been assigned to any chemical process system using nuclear energy as the prime energy source. The type of effect which induces the chemical change, or produces the chemical is of importance in classifying the type of chemonuclear process, or reactor involved. Four types of effects are identified for this classification. These are radiation, thermal, electrical, and photolytic effects. The radiation effects include the interaction with matter of high energy particles, or photons carrying energy in the range of a million electron volts (MEV) or higher, and causing primarily ionization effects. Thermal effects include transfer of thermal energy to matter and usually is directed towards producing a thermodynamic equilibrium in the system. Electrical effects are concerned with interaction with matter of particles carrying energy in the range of electron volts up to thousands of electron volts (EV to KEV). The photolytic effects utilize photon energy in the range of infrared through the visible to the ultraviolet radiation (IR, Visible, and UV). As is evident, this classification is somewhat arbitrary since it is primarily based on a division of the energy spectrum which is in reality continuous. It does, however, separate the more conventional methods of inducing chemical reactions from the less conventional, and demonstrates the various techniques in the utilization of nuclear energy. All these techniques must be compared when selecting an economically competitive process.

The generic term "chemonuclear" has been assigned to any chemical process system using nuclear energy as the prime energy source. The type of effect which induces the chemical change, or produces the chemical is of importance in classifying the type of chemonuclear process, or reactor involved. Four types of effects are identified for this classification. These are radiation, thermal, electrical, and photolytic effects. The radiation effects include the interaction with matter of high energy particles, or photons carrying energy in the range of a million electron volts (MEV) or higher, and causing primarily ionization effects. Thermal effects include transfer of thermal energy to matter and usually is directed towards producing a thermodynamic equilibrium in the system. Electrical effects are concerned with interaction with matter of particles carrying energy in the range of electron volts up to thousands of electron volts (EV to KEV). The photolytic effects utilize photon energy in the range of infrared through the visible to the ultraviolet radiation (IR, Visible, and UV). As is evident, this classification is somewhat arbitrary since it is primarily based on a division of the energy spectrum which is in reality continuous. It does, however, separate the more conventional methods of inducing chemical reactions from the less conventional, and demonstrates the various techniques in the utilization of nuclear energy. All these techniques must be compared when selecting an economically competitive process.

The purpose of this paper is to quantify (in monetary terms) effects of building renovation in Croatia by comparing pre- and post- renovation energy expenses. Ex-post, bottom-up financial analysis was done by applying panel-data methodology on an initial sample of 495 public buildings which contained 49, 744 observations – monthly bills, which add up to a total of 513.5 million HRK. The fixed-effects model exhibits average savings which amount to approx. 13, 000 HRK yearly, per building. The important contribution of this paper lies in collecting raw data, filtering it, and applying contemporary econometric methodology in order to estimate micro-effects of nation-wide energy-efficiency programs.

The purpose of this paper is to quantify (in monetary terms) effects of building renovation in Croatia by comparing pre- and post- renovation energy expenses. Ex-post, bottom-up financial analysis was done by applying panel-data methodology on an initial sample of 495 public buildings which contained 49, 744 observations – monthly bills, which add up to a total of 513.5 million HRK. The fixed-effects model exhibits average savings which amount to approx. 13, 000 HRK yearly, per building. The important contribution of this paper lies in collecting raw data, filtering it, and applying contemporary econometric methodology in order to estimate micro-effects of nation-wide energy-efficiency programs.

In this report the realised energy savings in the Netherlands for the period 1995-2002 are presented for the sectors households, industry, agriculture, services, transport, refineries and electricity and for the national level. First a short description is given of the 'Protocol Monitoring Energy savings', a common methodology and database to calculate the amount of energy savings, that has been set up earlier by four Dutch institutes CPB, ECN, Novem and RIVM. Results are presented for savings on final energy use, for conversion in end-use sectors (co-generation) and for conversion in the energy sector. National savings of 1,0% per year are found, with a decreasing tendency in recent years. Much attention is given to the uncertainty margins that result from the uncertainty in the input data and the 'quality' of the variable that is used to calculated the reference energy use (without savings). It proves not possible to supply a reliable saving figure for final energy use in the services sector. On the other hand the savings from better conversion can be calculated quite well. Overall a margin of +/- 0,3% is found for the national yearly saving figure. Next to savings an analysis has also been made of volume- and structural effects with respect to energy consumption, energy-intensity developments and other relevant factors in different sectors. Finally savings have been put in perspective: savings in comparison with that of the EU-countries, the contribution of savings to the reduction of the CO2-emissions and a comparison with other evaluation studies.

In this report the realised energy savings in the Netherlands for the period 1995-2002 are presented for the sectors households, industry, agriculture, services, transport, refineries and electricity and for the national level. First a short description is given of the 'Protocol Monitoring Energy savings', a common methodology and database to calculate the amount of energy savings, that has been set up earlier by four Dutch institutes CPB, ECN, Novem and RIVM. Results are presented for savings on final energy use, for conversion in end-use sectors (co-generation) and for conversion in the energy sector. National savings of 1,0% per year are found, with a decreasing tendency in recent years. Much attention is given to the uncertainty margins that result from the uncertainty in the input data and the 'quality' of the variable that is used to calculated the reference energy use (without savings). It proves not possible to supply a reliable saving figure for final energy use in the services sector. On the other hand the savings from better conversion can be calculated quite well. Overall a margin of +/- 0,3% is found for the national yearly saving figure. Next to savings an analysis has also been made of volume- and structural effects with respect to energy consumption, energy-intensity developments and other relevant factors in different sectors. Finally savings have been put in perspective: savings in comparison with that of the EU-countries, the contribution of savings to the reduction of the CO2-emissions and a comparison with other evaluation studies.

In dit rapport wordt de gerealiseerde energiebesparing in Nederland in de periode 1995-2002 gepresenteerd voor de sectoren huishoudens, industrie, land- en tuinbouw, diensten, transport, raffinaderijen en elektriciteitsvoorziening, en voor het nationale niveau. Eerst wordt een korte beschrijving gegeven van het 'Protocol Monitoring Energiebesparing', een gemeenschappelijke methode en database die eerder opgezet is door de vier instituten CPB, ECN, Novem en RIVM. Er worden resultaten gepresenteerd voor besparing op finaal energieverbruik, voor conversie in eindverbruik sectoren (wamte/kracht) en voor conversie in de energiesector. Een nationale besparing van 1,0% per jaar gevonden, met een dalende tendens in recente jaren, zowel in de meeste verbruiksectoren als bij de elektriciteitsproductie met warmtekracht installaties en centrales. Veel aandacht is gegeven aan de onzekerheid die resulteert uit de marges in de input data en de 'kwaliteit' van de variabele die is gebruikt om het referentie energieverbruik (zonder besparing) te bepalen. Het blijkt niet mogelijk om een betrouwbaar cijfer voor besparing op finaal verbruik in de diensten sector te geven. Maar besparing door betere conversie kan heel goed bepaald worden. Overall wordt een marge van +/- 0,3% gevonden voor het nationale jaarlijkse besparingscijfer. Het rapport bevat ook een analyse van volume- en structurele effecten betreffende energie verbruik, energie-intensiteitsontwikkelingen en andere relevante factoren in verschillende sectoren. Tenslotte zijn de besparingen in perspectief geplaatst: een vergelijking met cijfers voor de EU-landen, de bijdrage van besparing tot de reductie van CO2-emissies en een vergelijking met andere evaluatie studies. In de periode 1995-2002 was de gemiddelde nationale besparing 1,0% per jaar, wat overeenkomt met een CO2-reductie van circa 15 Megaton (ongeveer 8% van de totale Nederlandse CO2-emissies). Besparing heeft daarmee vijf maal zoveel bijgedragen aan de reductie van CO2-emissies dan duurzame energie.

In dit rapport wordt de gerealiseerde energiebesparing in Nederland in de periode 1995-2002 gepresenteerd voor de sectoren huishoudens, industrie, land- en tuinbouw, diensten, transport, raffinaderijen en elektriciteitsvoorziening, en voor het nationale niveau. Eerst wordt een korte beschrijving gegeven van het 'Protocol Monitoring Energiebesparing', een gemeenschappelijke methode en database die eerder opgezet is door de vier instituten CPB, ECN, Novem en RIVM. Er worden resultaten gepresenteerd voor besparing op finaal energieverbruik, voor conversie in eindverbruik sectoren (wamte/kracht) en voor conversie in de energiesector. Een nationale besparing van 1,0% per jaar gevonden, met een dalende tendens in recente jaren, zowel in de meeste verbruiksectoren als bij de elektriciteitsproductie met warmtekracht installaties en centrales. Veel aandacht is gegeven aan de onzekerheid die resulteert uit de marges in de input data en de 'kwaliteit' van de variabele die is gebruikt om het referentie energieverbruik (zonder besparing) te bepalen. Het blijkt niet mogelijk om een betrouwbaar cijfer voor besparing op finaal verbruik in de diensten sector te geven. Maar besparing door betere conversie kan heel goed bepaald worden. Overall wordt een marge van +/- 0,3% gevonden voor het nationale jaarlijkse besparingscijfer. Het rapport bevat ook een analyse van volume- en structurele effecten betreffende energie verbruik, energie-intensiteitsontwikkelingen en andere relevante factoren in verschillende sectoren. Tenslotte zijn de besparingen in perspectief geplaatst: een vergelijking met cijfers voor de EU-landen, de bijdrage van besparing tot de reductie van CO2-emissies en een vergelijking met andere evaluatie studies. In de periode 1995-2002 was de gemiddelde nationale besparing 1,0% per jaar, wat overeenkomt met een CO2-reductie van circa 15 Megaton (ongeveer 8% van de totale Nederlandse CO2-emissies). Besparing heeft daarmee vijf maal zoveel bijgedragen aan de reductie van CO2-emissies dan duurzame energie.

Despite the growing interest, a thorough explanation of how geopolitical and energy security risks relate to carbon emissions is still missing. To fill this gap, this paper investigates the impact of these factors, both individually and jointly, on carbon dioxide emissions in European Union countries from 1990 to 2021, also accounting for the effects of per capita final energy consumption and real income. Empirical findings from the augmented mean group and novel dynamic common correlated effects mean group estimator reveal that the strongest long-term escalation in carbon dioxide emissions is attributable to final energy consumption, followed by energy security risk. Geopolitical risk, however, has a mild short-term mitigating effect on carbon emissions. In the long run, this effect is statistically insignificant. The joint effect of energy security and geopolitical risks indicates that they may reinforce each other and lead to even higher carbon dioxide emissions in the long run. Therefore, policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions need to address both risks simultaneously, while also considering the causal relationships observed between the variables under study.