• Energy Research

In recent years, due to increasing energy consumption and decreasing fosil fuel based energy resources, reducing energy consumption has become inevitable. Buildings consume 35% to 40% of the energy generated in the world to provide heating, ventilating, air conditioning and lighting. For this reason designing high efficiency buildings is essential to reduce the energy consumption in buildings. In order to reduce energy consumption the buildings' the mechanical systems should be selected from high efficiency mechanical systems.In many countries standards and regulations require the design of high efficiency buildings. One of the most important of these regulations is Energy Performance of Buildings Directive Recast (EPBD Recast) in the European Union. The main object of this regulation is to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in order to reduce their effect on global warming. The Nearly Zero Energy Buildings regulation applies to all EU countries as of 31 December 2020. Starting on the 1st of January 2021 all new buildings must be constructed as Nearly Zero Energy Building to meet the requierments of very high energy performance buildings. In this thesis, by taking the instructions in the regulations as a reference, the aim is to form solution packages for two sample buildings. Using one building example in a cold climate and one building example in a warm climate and then making passive designs and using active solutions in construction and mechanical systems in order to make traditional residence buildings Net Zero Energy Building or Nearly Zero Energy Building. Also, the instructions and examples in REHVA (Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Associations) were taken into consideration. Another important point of this study is to emphasize the important of the climate conditions. The solution packages were formed by using optimum design solutions according to cold and warm climate conditions.In order to analyse the cold climate zone and design the building for these conditions, the pilot city selected was Berlin, Germany. For the pilot city in warm climate Izmir, Turkey was selected. The reason for solutions packages and precautions taken are specific to climate zones, it is shown by calculations and simulation results that design criteria cannot be suitable with the other climate conditions. Hence, this study emphasizes that the climate conditions have a major effect on the design conditions and to show the solution packages must be cost effective. In the first chapter, aim and scope of this study was given. Studies by orthers and their results were included in a literature review. These studies are of energy analysis for building in different climates, building envelopes in Turkey's climate zones. Methodology of the study was also introduced in the chapter.In the study, for Nearly Zero Building design, the annual primary energy consumption 60 kWh/m2 is a maximum limit reference and 0 kWh/m2 is taken as the annual primary energy consumption for Net Zero Energy Building design.In order to achieve these results, firstly the building envelope was modified by using passive solutions. In the second chapter, the common properties of the buildings in different climates were given in detail; number of people, maximum power densities of lights and electric equipment and other loads. These values are compatible with the ASHRAE standards.In the fourth chapter, firstly, a TS825 standard validated building was modelled and its heating and cooling energy demands were evaluated by using EnergyPlus. Calculations were made with weather data for Izmir and Berlin which can be considered as a sample location for cooling-weighted Mediterranean climate and for heating-weighted cold climate. Then the passive solutions options were evaluated one by one through building energy simulation software. The precautions were taken in the building envelope especially in external walls and windows which are the primary components for a building envelope. First, the construction materials in walls, ground and floor were determined according to the cold and warm climates. Second solution is the insulation thickness of the construction. For external walls, roof and ground the insulation thickness was studied parametrically up to 30 cm. The external wall insulation thicknesses were taken 8 cm for Izmir and 15 cm for Berlin in order to design cost effective building.By using insulation as mentioned before for the building in Izmir, the annual heating energy demand was reduced but annual cooling energy demand increased 6%. Also in Berlin, the annual heating energy demand was reduced substantially but, decrease in annual cooling energy demand increased approximately 17%. The analysis results show that any improvement on cooling energy demand in warm climate will have a substantial impact on total energy efficiency and any improvement on heating energy demand in cold climate will have a substantial impact on total energy efficiency.The window-wall ratio was determined by using the standards (TS825) and results of the analysis. In order to reduce the heating energy demand in Berlin and cooling energy demand in Izmir window-wall ratios are taken 12% for Berlin and 24% for Izmir. Following the window properties were determined for each climate zones by simulating different window type's data was selected from the EnergyPlus software library. Also, in Izmir, a film coated double pane window was used to decrease the effect of the sun's radiation. In Berlin triple pane window was used to benefit from the sun radiation. Window shading was used to reduce the cooling energy demand in summer or springs. To determine the optimum solution the shading with the same shape at different angles were analysed through EnergyPlus. For both buildings, 90 degrees shading was used. In Izmir, all windows have a shading. In Berlin all windows have a shading except north side.At this stage, optimum solutions were created according to the climate zone which building is affected. The simulation results and comparison studies were given in the related sections. During the analysis for passive solutions to observe the effects on annual energy consumption of the buildings, HVAC system of the building was deactivated. Thus, any changes in annual energy requirement of the buildings can be noticed easily and the importance of every parameter is shown by the results.The estimated initial annual primary energy consumptions were reduced substantially by passive design and active solutions. In the fifth chapter, optimum HVAC systems were selected and applied for each building. As HVAC systems VRF heat pump and fan coil system were applied to the buildings. In fan coil systems water cooled chiller systems and boilers were used for both HVAC system templates and data was selected from the EnergyPlus software library. In Berlin, under the influence of cold climate conditions, the energy consumption for heating is too high and to reduce this number a condensing boiler was used. In Berlin, by using VRF heat pump system, the annual primary energy consumption 136.17 kWh/m2 while the annual primary energy consumption is saving 22.4% by using fan coil system. In Izmir, by using a fan coil system, the annual primary energy consumption is 94,86 kWh/m2 while the annual primary energy consumption is saving 33,2% by using VRF heat pump system. The detailed comparison part was given in the sections of the fifth chapter.In the final stage, solar energy which is widely used as renewable energy, was used for both climate zones, electricity was generated to decrease the annual primary energy requirement. The solar radiation data and optimum tilt angles for both climate zones were evaluated by using PVsyst software.By considering these values, optimum places were selected on the roof to get the solar radiation with minimum loss and the maximum number of panels was calculated. By taking into considerations the determined results, some improvements were made to design a cost effective system. By generating energy as electricity from solar panels, Net Zero Energy Building or Nearly Zero Energy Building design was achieved in the study. The annual solar energy production for Izmir satisfies the annual energy requirement of the building because of the climate conditions in Berlin the annual solar energy production was not sufficient to generate the annual energy requirement. In order to make the building in Berlin as Nearly Zero Building, some improvements were made retrospectively. Improvements to the building envelope including adding gradual insulation thicknesses to the external wall, roof and ground.Finally, the aim of this study is achieved by the solution packages used. The annual primary energy consumption 0 kWh/m2 for Izmir and 59,57 kWh/m2 for Berlin by using solar energy. It's possible to improve this result by optimizing the using fan coil heat pump system for Berlin. Also using VRF heat recovery system for Izmir the annual energy requirement of the building can be reduced by providing cooling and heating as needed. Also, with the advance of technology better window type can be used for Berlin to gain more benefit from the solar radiation for heating in winter and to reduce the consumption for lighting. The high efficiency buildings are still too expensive and not cost affective but with the advance of technology the prices will drop and the high efficiency buildings numbers will increase.In this thesis study, three dimensional modelling of the building was generated in SkecthUp. For the numerical solution part to evaluate the annual primary energy consumption was made in EnergyPlus software which is preferred by engineers and architectures in building energy analysis. The OpenStudio program was used for construction details, building envelope material properties and HVAC systems basics. In addition PVsyst software was used to calculate energy produced for each climate zones. Meteonorm data was used as meteorological reference. Dünyadaki enerji tüketiminin son yıllarda hızla artması ve fosil tabanlı enerji kaynaklarının giderek azalması nedeniyle enerji tüketiminde yapılması gereken tasarruf kaçınılmaz bir hal almıştır. Enerji tüketimindeki tasarruf öncelikle enerji ihtiyacını azaltmak sonra ise enerjiyi tüketecek olan sistemlerin yüksek verimli sistemler olması ile sağlanabilir.Dünya üzerindeki enerji tüketiminin büyük kısmı, yaklaşık %35-%40'lık bölümü, yaşam alanlarındaki konfor şartlarının sağlanabilmesi için harcanmaktadır. Bu nedenle, binalardaki enerji tüketimini düşürebilmek için yüksek verimli bina tasarımları günümüzden büyük önem kazanmıştır.Birçok ülkede hedef binaların tasarım parametrelerini oluşturabilmek için bir takım standartlar ve düzenlemeler yapılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu uygulamanın en önemli örneklerinden biri ise, yürürlüğe giren ve Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinin sorumluluğu tutulduğu Binalarda Enerji Performansı Yönetmeliği'dir. Yönetmeliğin temel hedefi binalardaki enerji tüketimi azaltmak ve küresel ısınmanın etkisini indirgeyebilmek için sera gazlarının salınımını azaltmaktır. Bu bağlamda, yönetmelikte yüksek verimli bina olarak bahsedilen Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina tanımı ile Avrupa ülkelerine bir referans oluşturulmuş ve 31 Aralık 2020 tarihi itibariyle sorumlu olan her Avrupa ülkesindeki yeni yapılan her binanın Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina olması zorunluluğunu getirmiştir.Bu tez çalışmasında, yönetmelikteki açıklamalar referans alınarak, geleneksel bir konut binasının yüksek verimli Net Sıfır Enerjili Bina veya Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina olabilmesi için pasif ve aktif çözümler kullanarak farklı çözüm paketleri oluşturulmaktadır. Çalışmadaki temel amaç olarak ise binanın bulunduğu iklim koşullarının önemini vurgulanmıştır. Bu nedenle, çözüm paketleri aynı bina kabuğu soğuk ve sıcak iklim bölgesinde ele alınarak tasarım yapılmıştır. Soğuk iklim bölgesindeki incelemeyi gerçekleştirebilmek için Berlin, sıcak iklim bölgesindeki çalışma için ise İzmir pilot şehir olarak seçilmiştir. Oluşturulan çözümler veya alınan önlemler iklime özgün çözümler olduğundan, bir iklim kuşağında bulanan bina için geçerli olan tasarım kıstasları farklı bir iklim kuşağında bulunan bina için geçerli olmadığı hesaplamalar ile gösterilmiştir. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmada iklim etkenin üzerinde durulmuş ve oluşturulan çözüm paketlerinin maliyet etkin olması için bir maliyet analizi yapılmıştır.Çalışmada, Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina için azami yıllık birincil enerji tüketimi 60 kWh/m2 ve Net Sıfır Enerjili Bina için azami yıllık birincil enerji tüketimi 0 kWh/m2 olarak tanımlanmıştır. Bu hedeflere ulaşabilmek için öncelikle pasif önlemler ile bina kabuğunun yapısı değiştirilmiştir. Bu aşamada bina için bulunduğu iklim koşullarına uygun çözümler üretilmiş ve bu çözümlerin kıyaslamaları sunulmuştur. Bu önlemler bina kabuğunun en önemli birleşenleri olan dış duvar ve pencereler başta olmak üzere diğer bileşenlerde de alınmıştır. Pasif önlemler incelenirken bina içerisinde iklimlendirme sistemleri olmadığı kabul edilmiştir. Bu sayede binadaki enerji ihtiyacında meydana gelebilecek herhangi bir değişiklik daha kolay fark edilerek her bir parametrelerin önemi ortaya konulmuştur.Binadaki tüketilmesi beklenen yıllık birincil enerji tüketimi optimum pasif çözümler ile birlikte en aza indirgendikten sonra binanın kullanım tipi, bulunduğu iklim koşulları ve yıllık tüketimleri göz önüne alınarak en uygun mekanik sistemler seçilmiştir. Bu seçim aşamasında ise her iki bina için fan coil ve VRF sistemleri değerlendirilmiş ve sistemler hakkında bilgiler verilmiştir. Her iki binada ısı pompalı VRF istemi ele alınmıştır. Fan coil sisteminde ise öncelikli olarak su soğutma grubu ve normal kazan kullanılmıştır. Su soğutma grubunun analizi için EnergyPlus programındaki veriler kullanılarak binaların soğutma yüklerine uygun su soğutmalı çiller ve soğutma kulesi seçimleri yapılmıştır. Soğuk iklim etkisi altında olan Berlin şehrindeki binanın simülasyonunda ısıtma için harcanan yıllık enerji tüketiminin fazla olması nedeniyle enerji tasarrufu yapabilmek için yoğuşmalı kazan seçeneği değerlendirilmiş ve sistemler arasındaki kıyaslamalar ilgili bölümlerde sunulmuştur.Son aşamada ise, yenilenebilir enerji kaynağı olarak her iki binanın da rahatlıkla yaralanabileceği güneş enerjisi kullanılmış ve elektrik üretimi yapılmıştır. PVsyst programı ile her iki binanın aylık ve yıllık güneş ışınım miktarları belirlenmiş ve optimum panel açıları saptanmıştır. Bu değerlere sadık kalarak panel yerleşimi için en uygun yer olan bina çatılarına yerleştirilebilecek maksimum panel sayıları bulunmuştur. Belirlenen miktarlar her bir bina için maliyet de göz önünde bulundurularak gözden geçirilerek iyileştirmeler yapılmıştır. Güneş enerjisinden elde edilen elektrik üretimi ile her bir bina için Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili ve Net Sıfır Enerjili Bina hedefine ulaşılmıştır.Ancak İzmir şehrindeki bina için üretilen güneş enerjisi yeterli oluyorken, iklim koşulları nedeniyle Berlin'deki elektrik üretiminin yeterli olmadığı görülmüştür. Bu nedenle Berlin'deki binanın Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina olabilmesi için geriye dönük iyileştirmeler yapılmıştır. Bu iyileştirmeler için öncelikli olarak bina dış kabuğundaki iyileştirmeler düşünülmüştür. Dış duvar, döşeme ve çatı konstrüksiyonundaki yalıtım kalınlığı arttırılarak istenen hedefe ulaşılmıştır.Bu tez çalışmasında, örnek binalarının üç boyutlu modellemesi SketchUp programı ile hazırlanmıştır. Çalışmanın sayısal analiz kısmı için ise, Yıllık birincil enerji tüketimlerini hesaplama ve örnek binalarını simülasyonu, günümüzde mimar ve mühendisler tarafından sıklıkla tercih edilen EnergyPlus ve yardımcı ara yüzü olan OpenStudio programları kullanılmıştır. OpenStudio programında bina konstrüksiyon ayrıntıları, malzeme özellikleri, iklimlendirme sistemleri ve bunlara ait zaman çizelgeleri girilmiştir. Bunun dışında yenilebilir enerji kaynaklarının kullanılabilmesi için tasarımda PVsyst yazılımı kullanılmıştır. 101

In recent years, due to increasing energy consumption and decreasing fosil fuel based energy resources, reducing energy consumption has become inevitable. Buildings consume 35% to 40% of the energy generated in the world to provide heating, ventilating, air conditioning and lighting. For this reason designing high efficiency buildings is essential to reduce the energy consumption in buildings. In order to reduce energy consumption the buildings' the mechanical systems should be selected from high efficiency mechanical systems.In many countries standards and regulations require the design of high efficiency buildings. One of the most important of these regulations is Energy Performance of Buildings Directive Recast (EPBD Recast) in the European Union. The main object of this regulation is to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in order to reduce their effect on global warming. The Nearly Zero Energy Buildings regulation applies to all EU countries as of 31 December 2020. Starting on the 1st of January 2021 all new buildings must be constructed as Nearly Zero Energy Building to meet the requierments of very high energy performance buildings. In this thesis, by taking the instructions in the regulations as a reference, the aim is to form solution packages for two sample buildings. Using one building example in a cold climate and one building example in a warm climate and then making passive designs and using active solutions in construction and mechanical systems in order to make traditional residence buildings Net Zero Energy Building or Nearly Zero Energy Building. Also, the instructions and examples in REHVA (Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Associations) were taken into consideration. Another important point of this study is to emphasize the important of the climate conditions. The solution packages were formed by using optimum design solutions according to cold and warm climate conditions.In order to analyse the cold climate zone and design the building for these conditions, the pilot city selected was Berlin, Germany. For the pilot city in warm climate Izmir, Turkey was selected. The reason for solutions packages and precautions taken are specific to climate zones, it is shown by calculations and simulation results that design criteria cannot be suitable with the other climate conditions. Hence, this study emphasizes that the climate conditions have a major effect on the design conditions and to show the solution packages must be cost effective. In the first chapter, aim and scope of this study was given. Studies by orthers and their results were included in a literature review. These studies are of energy analysis for building in different climates, building envelopes in Turkey's climate zones. Methodology of the study was also introduced in the chapter.In the study, for Nearly Zero Building design, the annual primary energy consumption 60 kWh/m2 is a maximum limit reference and 0 kWh/m2 is taken as the annual primary energy consumption for Net Zero Energy Building design.In order to achieve these results, firstly the building envelope was modified by using passive solutions. In the second chapter, the common properties of the buildings in different climates were given in detail; number of people, maximum power densities of lights and electric equipment and other loads. These values are compatible with the ASHRAE standards.In the fourth chapter, firstly, a TS825 standard validated building was modelled and its heating and cooling energy demands were evaluated by using EnergyPlus. Calculations were made with weather data for Izmir and Berlin which can be considered as a sample location for cooling-weighted Mediterranean climate and for heating-weighted cold climate. Then the passive solutions options were evaluated one by one through building energy simulation software. The precautions were taken in the building envelope especially in external walls and windows which are the primary components for a building envelope. First, the construction materials in walls, ground and floor were determined according to the cold and warm climates. Second solution is the insulation thickness of the construction. For external walls, roof and ground the insulation thickness was studied parametrically up to 30 cm. The external wall insulation thicknesses were taken 8 cm for Izmir and 15 cm for Berlin in order to design cost effective building.By using insulation as mentioned before for the building in Izmir, the annual heating energy demand was reduced but annual cooling energy demand increased 6%. Also in Berlin, the annual heating energy demand was reduced substantially but, decrease in annual cooling energy demand increased approximately 17%. The analysis results show that any improvement on cooling energy demand in warm climate will have a substantial impact on total energy efficiency and any improvement on heating energy demand in cold climate will have a substantial impact on total energy efficiency.The window-wall ratio was determined by using the standards (TS825) and results of the analysis. In order to reduce the heating energy demand in Berlin and cooling energy demand in Izmir window-wall ratios are taken 12% for Berlin and 24% for Izmir. Following the window properties were determined for each climate zones by simulating different window type's data was selected from the EnergyPlus software library. Also, in Izmir, a film coated double pane window was used to decrease the effect of the sun's radiation. In Berlin triple pane window was used to benefit from the sun radiation. Window shading was used to reduce the cooling energy demand in summer or springs. To determine the optimum solution the shading with the same shape at different angles were analysed through EnergyPlus. For both buildings, 90 degrees shading was used. In Izmir, all windows have a shading. In Berlin all windows have a shading except north side.At this stage, optimum solutions were created according to the climate zone which building is affected. The simulation results and comparison studies were given in the related sections. During the analysis for passive solutions to observe the effects on annual energy consumption of the buildings, HVAC system of the building was deactivated. Thus, any changes in annual energy requirement of the buildings can be noticed easily and the importance of every parameter is shown by the results.The estimated initial annual primary energy consumptions were reduced substantially by passive design and active solutions. In the fifth chapter, optimum HVAC systems were selected and applied for each building. As HVAC systems VRF heat pump and fan coil system were applied to the buildings. In fan coil systems water cooled chiller systems and boilers were used for both HVAC system templates and data was selected from the EnergyPlus software library. In Berlin, under the influence of cold climate conditions, the energy consumption for heating is too high and to reduce this number a condensing boiler was used. In Berlin, by using VRF heat pump system, the annual primary energy consumption 136.17 kWh/m2 while the annual primary energy consumption is saving 22.4% by using fan coil system. In Izmir, by using a fan coil system, the annual primary energy consumption is 94,86 kWh/m2 while the annual primary energy consumption is saving 33,2% by using VRF heat pump system. The detailed comparison part was given in the sections of the fifth chapter.In the final stage, solar energy which is widely used as renewable energy, was used for both climate zones, electricity was generated to decrease the annual primary energy requirement. The solar radiation data and optimum tilt angles for both climate zones were evaluated by using PVsyst software.By considering these values, optimum places were selected on the roof to get the solar radiation with minimum loss and the maximum number of panels was calculated. By taking into considerations the determined results, some improvements were made to design a cost effective system. By generating energy as electricity from solar panels, Net Zero Energy Building or Nearly Zero Energy Building design was achieved in the study. The annual solar energy production for Izmir satisfies the annual energy requirement of the building because of the climate conditions in Berlin the annual solar energy production was not sufficient to generate the annual energy requirement. In order to make the building in Berlin as Nearly Zero Building, some improvements were made retrospectively. Improvements to the building envelope including adding gradual insulation thicknesses to the external wall, roof and ground.Finally, the aim of this study is achieved by the solution packages used. The annual primary energy consumption 0 kWh/m2 for Izmir and 59,57 kWh/m2 for Berlin by using solar energy. It's possible to improve this result by optimizing the using fan coil heat pump system for Berlin. Also using VRF heat recovery system for Izmir the annual energy requirement of the building can be reduced by providing cooling and heating as needed. Also, with the advance of technology better window type can be used for Berlin to gain more benefit from the solar radiation for heating in winter and to reduce the consumption for lighting. The high efficiency buildings are still too expensive and not cost affective but with the advance of technology the prices will drop and the high efficiency buildings numbers will increase.In this thesis study, three dimensional modelling of the building was generated in SkecthUp. For the numerical solution part to evaluate the annual primary energy consumption was made in EnergyPlus software which is preferred by engineers and architectures in building energy analysis. The OpenStudio program was used for construction details, building envelope material properties and HVAC systems basics. In addition PVsyst software was used to calculate energy produced for each climate zones. Meteonorm data was used as meteorological reference. Dünyadaki enerji tüketiminin son yıllarda hızla artması ve fosil tabanlı enerji kaynaklarının giderek azalması nedeniyle enerji tüketiminde yapılması gereken tasarruf kaçınılmaz bir hal almıştır. Enerji tüketimindeki tasarruf öncelikle enerji ihtiyacını azaltmak sonra ise enerjiyi tüketecek olan sistemlerin yüksek verimli sistemler olması ile sağlanabilir.Dünya üzerindeki enerji tüketiminin büyük kısmı, yaklaşık %35-%40'lık bölümü, yaşam alanlarındaki konfor şartlarının sağlanabilmesi için harcanmaktadır. Bu nedenle, binalardaki enerji tüketimini düşürebilmek için yüksek verimli bina tasarımları günümüzden büyük önem kazanmıştır.Birçok ülkede hedef binaların tasarım parametrelerini oluşturabilmek için bir takım standartlar ve düzenlemeler yapılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu uygulamanın en önemli örneklerinden biri ise, yürürlüğe giren ve Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinin sorumluluğu tutulduğu Binalarda Enerji Performansı Yönetmeliği'dir. Yönetmeliğin temel hedefi binalardaki enerji tüketimi azaltmak ve küresel ısınmanın etkisini indirgeyebilmek için sera gazlarının salınımını azaltmaktır. Bu bağlamda, yönetmelikte yüksek verimli bina olarak bahsedilen Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina tanımı ile Avrupa ülkelerine bir referans oluşturulmuş ve 31 Aralık 2020 tarihi itibariyle sorumlu olan her Avrupa ülkesindeki yeni yapılan her binanın Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina olması zorunluluğunu getirmiştir.Bu tez çalışmasında, yönetmelikteki açıklamalar referans alınarak, geleneksel bir konut binasının yüksek verimli Net Sıfır Enerjili Bina veya Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina olabilmesi için pasif ve aktif çözümler kullanarak farklı çözüm paketleri oluşturulmaktadır. Çalışmadaki temel amaç olarak ise binanın bulunduğu iklim koşullarının önemini vurgulanmıştır. Bu nedenle, çözüm paketleri aynı bina kabuğu soğuk ve sıcak iklim bölgesinde ele alınarak tasarım yapılmıştır. Soğuk iklim bölgesindeki incelemeyi gerçekleştirebilmek için Berlin, sıcak iklim bölgesindeki çalışma için ise İzmir pilot şehir olarak seçilmiştir. Oluşturulan çözümler veya alınan önlemler iklime özgün çözümler olduğundan, bir iklim kuşağında bulanan bina için geçerli olan tasarım kıstasları farklı bir iklim kuşağında bulunan bina için geçerli olmadığı hesaplamalar ile gösterilmiştir. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmada iklim etkenin üzerinde durulmuş ve oluşturulan çözüm paketlerinin maliyet etkin olması için bir maliyet analizi yapılmıştır.Çalışmada, Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina için azami yıllık birincil enerji tüketimi 60 kWh/m2 ve Net Sıfır Enerjili Bina için azami yıllık birincil enerji tüketimi 0 kWh/m2 olarak tanımlanmıştır. Bu hedeflere ulaşabilmek için öncelikle pasif önlemler ile bina kabuğunun yapısı değiştirilmiştir. Bu aşamada bina için bulunduğu iklim koşullarına uygun çözümler üretilmiş ve bu çözümlerin kıyaslamaları sunulmuştur. Bu önlemler bina kabuğunun en önemli birleşenleri olan dış duvar ve pencereler başta olmak üzere diğer bileşenlerde de alınmıştır. Pasif önlemler incelenirken bina içerisinde iklimlendirme sistemleri olmadığı kabul edilmiştir. Bu sayede binadaki enerji ihtiyacında meydana gelebilecek herhangi bir değişiklik daha kolay fark edilerek her bir parametrelerin önemi ortaya konulmuştur.Binadaki tüketilmesi beklenen yıllık birincil enerji tüketimi optimum pasif çözümler ile birlikte en aza indirgendikten sonra binanın kullanım tipi, bulunduğu iklim koşulları ve yıllık tüketimleri göz önüne alınarak en uygun mekanik sistemler seçilmiştir. Bu seçim aşamasında ise her iki bina için fan coil ve VRF sistemleri değerlendirilmiş ve sistemler hakkında bilgiler verilmiştir. Her iki binada ısı pompalı VRF istemi ele alınmıştır. Fan coil sisteminde ise öncelikli olarak su soğutma grubu ve normal kazan kullanılmıştır. Su soğutma grubunun analizi için EnergyPlus programındaki veriler kullanılarak binaların soğutma yüklerine uygun su soğutmalı çiller ve soğutma kulesi seçimleri yapılmıştır. Soğuk iklim etkisi altında olan Berlin şehrindeki binanın simülasyonunda ısıtma için harcanan yıllık enerji tüketiminin fazla olması nedeniyle enerji tasarrufu yapabilmek için yoğuşmalı kazan seçeneği değerlendirilmiş ve sistemler arasındaki kıyaslamalar ilgili bölümlerde sunulmuştur.Son aşamada ise, yenilenebilir enerji kaynağı olarak her iki binanın da rahatlıkla yaralanabileceği güneş enerjisi kullanılmış ve elektrik üretimi yapılmıştır. PVsyst programı ile her iki binanın aylık ve yıllık güneş ışınım miktarları belirlenmiş ve optimum panel açıları saptanmıştır. Bu değerlere sadık kalarak panel yerleşimi için en uygun yer olan bina çatılarına yerleştirilebilecek maksimum panel sayıları bulunmuştur. Belirlenen miktarlar her bir bina için maliyet de göz önünde bulundurularak gözden geçirilerek iyileştirmeler yapılmıştır. Güneş enerjisinden elde edilen elektrik üretimi ile her bir bina için Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili ve Net Sıfır Enerjili Bina hedefine ulaşılmıştır.Ancak İzmir şehrindeki bina için üretilen güneş enerjisi yeterli oluyorken, iklim koşulları nedeniyle Berlin'deki elektrik üretiminin yeterli olmadığı görülmüştür. Bu nedenle Berlin'deki binanın Yaklaşık Sıfır Enerjili Bina olabilmesi için geriye dönük iyileştirmeler yapılmıştır. Bu iyileştirmeler için öncelikli olarak bina dış kabuğundaki iyileştirmeler düşünülmüştür. Dış duvar, döşeme ve çatı konstrüksiyonundaki yalıtım kalınlığı arttırılarak istenen hedefe ulaşılmıştır.Bu tez çalışmasında, örnek binalarının üç boyutlu modellemesi SketchUp programı ile hazırlanmıştır. Çalışmanın sayısal analiz kısmı için ise, Yıllık birincil enerji tüketimlerini hesaplama ve örnek binalarını simülasyonu, günümüzde mimar ve mühendisler tarafından sıklıkla tercih edilen EnergyPlus ve yardımcı ara yüzü olan OpenStudio programları kullanılmıştır. OpenStudio programında bina konstrüksiyon ayrıntıları, malzeme özellikleri, iklimlendirme sistemleri ve bunlara ait zaman çizelgeleri girilmiştir. Bunun dışında yenilebilir enerji kaynaklarının kullanılabilmesi için tasarımda PVsyst yazılımı kullanılmıştır. 101

The heat pipe is a device of very high thermal conductance. Because of their superior heat conductivity, heat pipes are prime candidates for applications involving the utilization of solar and geothermal energy and the recovery of waste heat. Nowadays, heat pipes have become the stage of mass production. In this work from the available literature some of applications are presented. Due to superior heat transfer and other favorable characteristics, further expansion of heat pipe applications is to be expected at different types of solar collectors and solar energy utilization generally. Heat pipe de-icing and snow melting systems of the highway pavement, and heat pipe heating systems in the room or in the greenhouse, utilizing natural stored geothermal energy of the earth and of the underground water or the drainage from hot springs and sea have been developed and investigated. Features of those systems are no moving parts and no external power requirement, implying high reliability, i.e. maintenance free. A heat exchanger using heat pipes can efficiently be used to transfer heat between fluid streams having a small difference in temperature, such as with low-grade heat. Also, due to their particular performance characteristics, a heat pipe heat exchanger can be used where other conventional heat exchangers become inappropriate. As heat exchangers is often an integral part of most conventional energy conversion systems, improvements in heat exchanger design, therefore, mean an increase in the effectiveness of the total energy conversion process. Heat pipe heat exchangers are very reliable because they have not moving parts and since every element is separate, the exchanger acts like many conventional ones in parallel.

The heat pipe is a device of very high thermal conductance. Because of their superior heat conductivity, heat pipes are prime candidates for applications involving the utilization of solar and geothermal energy and the recovery of waste heat. Nowadays, heat pipes have become the stage of mass production. In this work from the available literature some of applications are presented. Due to superior heat transfer and other favorable characteristics, further expansion of heat pipe applications is to be expected at different types of solar collectors and solar energy utilization generally. Heat pipe de-icing and snow melting systems of the highway pavement, and heat pipe heating systems in the room or in the greenhouse, utilizing natural stored geothermal energy of the earth and of the underground water or the drainage from hot springs and sea have been developed and investigated. Features of those systems are no moving parts and no external power requirement, implying high reliability, i.e. maintenance free. A heat exchanger using heat pipes can efficiently be used to transfer heat between fluid streams having a small difference in temperature, such as with low-grade heat. Also, due to their particular performance characteristics, a heat pipe heat exchanger can be used where other conventional heat exchangers become inappropriate. As heat exchangers is often an integral part of most conventional energy conversion systems, improvements in heat exchanger design, therefore, mean an increase in the effectiveness of the total energy conversion process. Heat pipe heat exchangers are very reliable because they have not moving parts and since every element is separate, the exchanger acts like many conventional ones in parallel.

Enerjide dışa bağımlılığı giderek artan ülkemizde en yoğun tüketim bina sektöründe olmaktadır. Bu sebeple binalarda enerji verimliliğini artıracak çözümlerin bir an önce uygulamaya geçmesi gerekmektedir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda oluşturulan bu tez çalışmasında, Ege Üniversitesi bünyesinde hizmet veren ve yüksek enerji tüketen Uluslararası Bilgisayar Enstitüsü binası irdelenerek enerji tasarruf performansı araştırılmıştır. Bunun için, binanın mevcut ve iyileştirilmiş durumunun enerji ve ekserji analizlerinin yapılmış, standartlara uygun iyileştirme önerileri sonucu binanın enerji tasarruf potansiyeli belirlenmiştir. Aynı zamanda, yönetmelikleri uygunlukları her iki durum içinde irdelenmiştir. Tez kapsamında gerçekleştirilen hesaplamalar sonucunda, mevcut bina yıllık bazda 192,57 kWh/m2yıl enerji tüketirken, önerilen iyileştirmeler sonucunda 153,08 kWh/m2yıl enerji tüketir hale gelmiştir. Yani, %21 oranında enerji tasarrufu sağlanmıştır. Ayrıca, binanın mevcut durumu dikkate alındığında yıllık bazda maksimum ekserji verimi %5,76 iken, iyileştirmeler sonucunda, hava kaynaklı ısı pompasında %9,89, toprak kaynaklı ısı pompasında ise %16,22 olmuştur. In our country which is dependent on the outward energy, the most intensive consumption is in the building sector. For this reason, the solutions that will increase the energy efficiency in the buildings should be applied as soon as possible. For this purpose, UBE building at Ege University was studied in the thesis study. For this, energy and exergy analyses of the existing and improved condition of the building were made and the energy saving potential of the building was determined. At the same time, their compliance with the regulations has been examined in both cases. As a result of the calculations carried out within the scope of the thesis, the existing building consumes 192,57 kWh/m2year of energy on an annual basis, resulting in the energy consumption of 153,08 kWh/m2year for the proposed improvements. That means energy savings of 21%. In addition, when the current situation of the building is taken into account, the maximum exergy efficiency rate on annual basis is 5.76%, As a result of the improvements, it was 9,89% in the air source heat pump and 16,22% in the earth source heat pump. 146

Enerjide dışa bağımlılığı giderek artan ülkemizde en yoğun tüketim bina sektöründe olmaktadır. Bu sebeple binalarda enerji verimliliğini artıracak çözümlerin bir an önce uygulamaya geçmesi gerekmektedir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda oluşturulan bu tez çalışmasında, Ege Üniversitesi bünyesinde hizmet veren ve yüksek enerji tüketen Uluslararası Bilgisayar Enstitüsü binası irdelenerek enerji tasarruf performansı araştırılmıştır. Bunun için, binanın mevcut ve iyileştirilmiş durumunun enerji ve ekserji analizlerinin yapılmış, standartlara uygun iyileştirme önerileri sonucu binanın enerji tasarruf potansiyeli belirlenmiştir. Aynı zamanda, yönetmelikleri uygunlukları her iki durum içinde irdelenmiştir. Tez kapsamında gerçekleştirilen hesaplamalar sonucunda, mevcut bina yıllık bazda 192,57 kWh/m2yıl enerji tüketirken, önerilen iyileştirmeler sonucunda 153,08 kWh/m2yıl enerji tüketir hale gelmiştir. Yani, %21 oranında enerji tasarrufu sağlanmıştır. Ayrıca, binanın mevcut durumu dikkate alındığında yıllık bazda maksimum ekserji verimi %5,76 iken, iyileştirmeler sonucunda, hava kaynaklı ısı pompasında %9,89, toprak kaynaklı ısı pompasında ise %16,22 olmuştur. In our country which is dependent on the outward energy, the most intensive consumption is in the building sector. For this reason, the solutions that will increase the energy efficiency in the buildings should be applied as soon as possible. For this purpose, UBE building at Ege University was studied in the thesis study. For this, energy and exergy analyses of the existing and improved condition of the building were made and the energy saving potential of the building was determined. At the same time, their compliance with the regulations has been examined in both cases. As a result of the calculations carried out within the scope of the thesis, the existing building consumes 192,57 kWh/m2year of energy on an annual basis, resulting in the energy consumption of 153,08 kWh/m2year for the proposed improvements. That means energy savings of 21%. In addition, when the current situation of the building is taken into account, the maximum exergy efficiency rate on annual basis is 5.76%, As a result of the improvements, it was 9,89% in the air source heat pump and 16,22% in the earth source heat pump. 146

In essentially all climates, solar heating systems for buildings must incorporate back-up conventional (auxiliary) heating equipment sized to meet the maximum load of the building. In areas with high densities of solar heated buildings using auxiliary energy supplied by utilities, unacceptable peaks in auxiliary energy demand (during cloudy weather) can be prevented via limited on-site storage of the utility supplied energy. In this paper several ''offpeak auxiliary'' solar air heating systems are compared using simulation methods. Two basic types of offpeak systems have been studied; Systems I and II, which separate the storage of auxiliary and solar energy, and Systems III and IV, which store all energy in the same pebble bed. Simulation methods are used to determine the effect of system configuration, collector loss coefficient, controls, storage size, and collector flow rate on system performance.

In essentially all climates, solar heating systems for buildings must incorporate back-up conventional (auxiliary) heating equipment sized to meet the maximum load of the building. In areas with high densities of solar heated buildings using auxiliary energy supplied by utilities, unacceptable peaks in auxiliary energy demand (during cloudy weather) can be prevented via limited on-site storage of the utility supplied energy. In this paper several ''offpeak auxiliary'' solar air heating systems are compared using simulation methods. Two basic types of offpeak systems have been studied; Systems I and II, which separate the storage of auxiliary and solar energy, and Systems III and IV, which store all energy in the same pebble bed. Simulation methods are used to determine the effect of system configuration, collector loss coefficient, controls, storage size, and collector flow rate on system performance.

Prior to about 1973, geothermal most direct use projects in the United States involved pool/spa applications and limited district and space heating systems. The oil price shocks of the 1970's revived interest in the use of geothermal energy as an alternative energy source. Accordingly, the US Department of Energy initiated numerous programs that caused significant growth of this industry. These programs involved technical assistance to developers, the preparation of project feasibility studies for potential users, cost sharing of demonstration projects (space and district heating, industrial, agriculture, and aquaculture), resource assessments, loan guarantees, support of state resource and commercialization activities, and others. Also adding to the growth were various federal and state tax credits. The use of groundwater-source heat pumps contributed to the growth, starting in 1980. The growth of direct use project development was quite closely monitored during the late 1970's and early 1980's when the USDOE program activities were extensive. Periodic updating of the status of the projects has been occasional but limited since that time. In order to obtain a better understanding of the current geothermal direct use market, the Oregon Institute of Technology Geo-Heat Center (OIT), under contract to the US Department of Energy, launched an extensive data-gathering effort in the spring of 1988. The results of that effort are incorporated into this paper. The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) (also funded by the Department of Energy) and OIT, through their continuing contacts with the geothermal industry, including state energy offices, are familiar with development trends and concerns; this information is also presented. 3 tabs.

Prior to about 1973, geothermal most direct use projects in the United States involved pool/spa applications and limited district and space heating systems. The oil price shocks of the 1970's revived interest in the use of geothermal energy as an alternative energy source. Accordingly, the US Department of Energy initiated numerous programs that caused significant growth of this industry. These programs involved technical assistance to developers, the preparation of project feasibility studies for potential users, cost sharing of demonstration projects (space and district heating, industrial, agriculture, and aquaculture), resource assessments, loan guarantees, support of state resource and commercialization activities, and others. Also adding to the growth were various federal and state tax credits. The use of groundwater-source heat pumps contributed to the growth, starting in 1980. The growth of direct use project development was quite closely monitored during the late 1970's and early 1980's when the USDOE program activities were extensive. Periodic updating of the status of the projects has been occasional but limited since that time. In order to obtain a better understanding of the current geothermal direct use market, the Oregon Institute of Technology Geo-Heat Center (OIT), under contract to the US Department of Energy, launched an extensive data-gathering effort in the spring of 1988. The results of that effort are incorporated into this paper. The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) (also funded by the Department of Energy) and OIT, through their continuing contacts with the geothermal industry, including state energy offices, are familiar with development trends and concerns; this information is also presented. 3 tabs.