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This paper explores Climate Protection at a local level. Initially it was essential to define and understand the “Greenhouse Effect” before evaluating local authorities’ potential to counteract it. We examined strategies dealing with the problem of climate change and particular emphasis was placed on the potential for local authorities to exert an influence. We examined the frameworks, policies, challenges, problems and best practices for climate protection at a local level. Our research examined ten municipalities on the island of Rhodes in Greece and assessed their current contribution to climate protection. Results showed that all ten municipalities implement a range of measures to protect the climate and reduce CO2 emissions

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Science, Vol.\n305, No. 5686, 2004, pp. 932-934."]} This paper contributes to the debate on the proximate causes of climate change. Also, it discusses the impact of the global temperature increases since the beginning of the twentieth century and the effectiveness of climate change models in isolating the primary cause (anthropogenic influences or natural variability in temperature) of the observed temperature increases that occurred within this period. The paper argues that if climate scientist and policymakers ignore the anthropogenic influence (greenhouse gases) on global warming on the pretense of lack of agreement among various climate models and their inability to account for all the necessary factors of global warming at all levels the current efforts of greenhouse emissions control and global warming as a whole could be exacerbated.

As recomendações internacionais sobre requerimentos humanos de energia (RHE), propostas pela FAO/WHO/UNU em 1985, representaram importante avanço metodológico, na medida em que os requerimentos passaram a ser baseados nos componentes de gasto energético do organismo, substituindo-se o método derivado da observação da ingestão de pessoas saudáveis. Esta modificação foi baseada na constatação de que a determinação dos RHE com base em ingestões observadas era um argumento circular, uma vez que estas não eram, forçosamente, aquelas que mantinham a massa corporal desejável e os níveis ótimos de atividade física para a saúde a longo prazo. A reunião de 1994 do International Dietary Energy Consultative Group, publicada em 1996, bem como artigos de autores nacionais e estrangeiros, indicam que os principais problemas no método proposto estão relacionados: • às equações de predição da taxa metabólica basal (TMB); • aos valores de nível de atividade física (NAF); • aos mecanismos de adaptação; • ao método de cálculo dos requerimentos para menores de 10 anos de idade. No caso brasileiro, as equações de predição tendem a superestimar a TMB de adultos (maiores de 18 anos) e os valores de NAF não são adequados à população, como indicam estudos recentes de medição da TMB e de estimação dos valores de NAF. Comparando os RHE calculados pelo método fatorial (baseado na duração das atividades e nos correspondentes índices energéticos integrados) com aqueles obtidos pelo método simplificado (baseado nos valores recomendados de NAF), este artigo mostra que os valores recomendados de NAF: • para as mulheres de 18 a 59 anos, determinam RHE de 11% a 17% acima do necessário para o grupo, podendo conduzir estas mulheres à obesidade; • para homens de 10 a 17 anos e acima de 60 anos, bem como para mulheres de 11 a 17 anos, conduziriam à desnutrição simplesmente por não incluírem provisão para as atividades físicas ocupacionais; • para homens entre 18 e 59 anos, só podem ser usados para calcular o RHE médio da população total, pois seu uso para os residentes em áreas rurais ou urbanas separadamente conduziria à desnutrição ou à obesidade, respectivamente. Além disto, este artigo mostra que os requerimentos baseados nos valores estimados de NAF aproximam-se, em média, dos requerimentos calculados pelo método fatorial, para todas as estratificações utilizadas. Por fim, considerando que existe, no âmbito do Sistema Estatístico Nacional, informação suficiente para estimar valores de NAF mais adequados a diversas estratificações da população brasileira do que os recomendados, este artigo sugere o cálculo dos requerimentos com base nos valores de NAF estimados para o País.The international recommendations on human energy requirements (ER), proposed by FAO/WHO/UNU in 1985, represent a significant methodological progress since they changed the method of estimating ER from the average energy intake of healthy people to the daily energy expenditure of the population. This change was based on the observation that estimation based on energy intake yielded a circular argument in which the intake was not the most appropriate way to maintain healthy weight and optimal levels of physical activity for health on the long run. The 1994 meeting of the International Dietary Energy Consultative Group, published in 1996, as well as papers by national and international authors indicate that the principal problems in the proposed method are related to: • the adequacy of the equations to estimate the basal metabolic rate (BMR); • the physical activity level (PAL) values; • the mechanisms of adaptation; • the method proposed to children under 10 years. For Brazil, the BMR equations tend to overestimate adults' BMR and the PAL values are not appropriated to the population, as shown by recent studies on BMR measurement and PAL values estimation. Comparing the ER assessed by the factorial method (based on the duration of the activities and the correspondent integrated energy indexes) with the simplified one (based on recommended PAL values), this paper shows that the recommended PAL values: • for 18-59 year-old women represent higher ER (from 11% to 17%) than necessary which could make these women become obese; • for 10-17 and 60+ year-old males and 11-17 year-old females will lead to undernutrition by not incorporating provisions for the occupational activities; • for 18-59 year-old males can only be used to calculate the mean for the total population, because its use for the rural and urban populations separately will lead to under and overnutrition, respectively. At last, the paper shows that the mean ER based on the estimated PAL values is very near to the mean ER based on the factorial method for all the strata defined. Considering that the Brazilian Official Statistical System has enough information to estimate PAL values more adequate to several stratifications of the population, this paper suggests determining ER based on the national estimated PAL values.

Description of the subject. Extracellular enzymes from filamentous fungi are increasingly used in eco-friendly biotransformation processes. Their relevant technological role and their stability towards extreme process conditions make of them the first sustainable solution for the elaboration of bio-based products from biomass conversion. Objectives. This paper describes the isolation of filamentous fungi from decaying plant material in the region of Meknes (northern central Morocco) and the assessment of their ability to breakdown lignocellulose. The objective is to select performant fungi with enzymatic machinery adapted to local environment and with potential for the breakdown of the regional specific lignocellulosic by-products into potentially high-value molecules. Method. Cereals, decaying wood, olive-pomace and -pulp and their composts were used to isolate lignocellulolytic fungi. One hundred twenty-seven pure strains were isolated and screened at 25 °C on selective media with cellulose or lignin as the sole carbon source. Performant strains were validated for the production of ligno-cellulolytic enzymes and identified using molecular technique. Results. Twenty-eight fungi had mycelial diameter on cellulose ≥ 6 cm and cellulolytic index ≥ 0.9. Twenty-two strains had the same profile on lignin medium. The production of endoglucanase, lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase enzymes was confirmed in performant strains using qualitative assay and molecular identification revealed that the best performing fungi were Mucor circinelloides, Mucor racemosus, Penicillium brasilianum, Penicillium crustosum, Paecilomyces sp., Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Aspergillus fischeri, Curvularia spicifera, Humicola grisea, Trichoderma atroviride and Cosmospora viridescens. Measurement of ligno-cellulolytic activities revealed that Penicillium and Fusarium strains mainly from wood decay and compost had the best profiles among performing strains. Conclusions. Isolated fungi are high decomposers of biomass and represent a prominent solution to develop green bioprocesses in the region.

Pressure is rising to alter the accounting system used to calculate emissions due to bioenergy under the Kyoto Protocol and the EU Emissions Trading Scheme because it does not capture the full extent of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from bioenergy use. Both the European Union (EU) and United States (U.S.) are engaged in consultation processes targeted on how to treat emissions connected with use of biomass for energy within regulatory systems hence this discussion of accounting options is timely. The paper first classifies alternative accounting systems into the following three basic approaches: 1) CO2 emissions produced when biomass is burnt for energy are not counted at the point of combustion but are accounted for in the land use sector as carbon stock losses (a combustion factor = 0 approach);. 2) CO2 emissions produced when biomass is burnt for energy are accounted for in the energy sector; uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere by plants and soils may, or may not, be accounted for (a combustion factor = 1 approach); 3) End users are responsible for all or a specified subset of emissions that occur along the bioenergy value chain regardless of where these emissions occur (a value chain approach). The paper then evaluates these approaches against general criteria, and assesses their impacts on a selected set of stakeholder goals. The general criteria are: (a) comprehensiveness; (b) simplicity; and (c) scale independence. Stakeholder goals to be examined are: (a) stimulation of rural economies (b) food security, (c) GHG reductions, and (d) preservation of forests. Given that it is unlikely that all countries will accept greenhouse gas emission targets in the future, we find that: 0-combustion factor accounting systems rank low on comprehensiveness but are relatively simple and scale­independent. Systems with a 1-combustion factor tend to be more comprehensive, and can be both simple and scale­independent. End-user systems vary in comprehensiveness, tend to be complicated and are scale-dependent. While stimulating rural economies, the current system (0-combustion factor) does not foster food security, reduce GHG emissions or preserve forests. 1-combustion factor approaches can support rural economies and food security but tend not to preserve forest. In value-chain approaches, mandates to use biofuels determine impacts on rural economies and food security. These systems can be effective in forest preservation and achieving GHG reductions. Proceedings of the 19th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, 6-10 June 2011, Berlin, Germany, pp. 2398-2407

{"references": ["European Commission: \"Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area - Towards a competitive and resource-efficient transport system\", pp. 5, 2011.", "G. Szendro, \"Congestion charging in Budapest - a comparison with existing systems\", Periodica Polytechnica, To be published.", "G. Szendro, \"Sustainable biofuels in Hungary and Europe - self-defeating incentives?\" Gazdalkodas Scientific Journal on Agricultural Economics, English Special Edition, pp. 71-78, ISSN 0046-5518, 2010.", "P. R. Ehrlich, J. P. Holdren, \"Impact of population growth\", Science, 1971.", "The World Bank: \"World Development Indicators & Global Development Finance\", 2010", "British Petrol: Statistical Review of World Energy 2011", "G. Szendro, M. Csete, A. Torok,\"Unbridgeable gap between transport policy and practice in Hungary\", Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, To be published.", "International Energy Agency, FIA Foundation: \"50 by 50, global fuel economy initiative\", pp. 6., 2008.", "http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/vehicles.html,\taccessed \n2011.09.19\n[10] http://www.eurocarblog.com/post/3322/electric-cars-europe-vs-the-us, accessed 2011.09.19"]} The effects of the transport sector on the environment are a well-recognized issue in the European Union and around the world. This area is a subject of much discussion as to how these negative effects could be minimized, especially with regards to impacts contributing to climate change. This paper aims to investigate the results of the economic crisis and how its consequences could be exploited to combat air pollution.

Defining alternatives for non-renewable energy sources constitutes a priority to the development of our societies. One of these alternatives is biofuels production starting from energy crops, agricultural wastes, forest products or wastes. In this context, a "second generation" biofuels production, aiming at utilizing the whole plant, including ligno-cellulosic (hemicelluloses, cellulose, lignin) fractions (Ogier et al., 1999) that are not used for human food, would allow the reduction of the drawbacks of bioethanol production (Schoeling, 2007). However, numerous technical, economical, ethical and environmental questions are still pending. One of the aims of the BioEtha2 project, directed by the Walloon Agricultural Research Centre, is to define the position of bioethanol produced from ligno-cellulosic biomass among the different renewable energy alternatives that could be developed in Wallonia towards 2020. With this aim, and in order to answer the numerous questions in this field, the project aims at using tools and methods coming from the concept of "forecasting scenarios" (Sebillotte, 2002; Slegten et al., 2007; For-learn, 2008). This concept, based on a contemporary reality, aims to explore different possible scenarios for the future development of alternative sources of energy production. The principle is to evaluate, explore, possible futures of the studied problematic, through the establishment of possible evolution trajectories. We contribute to this prospective through a systemic approach (Vanloqueren, 2007) that allows lightening the existing interactions within the system "ligno-cellulosic biomass chain" without isolating it from its environment. We explain and sketch the two contexts needed to identify primary stakes. The global context includes inter-dependant and auto-regulating fields such as society, politics, technology and economy. These four fields influence each part of the "chain" with specific tools. However, the interest and possible action fields lay within the intermediary context representing the "resources" such as agriculture, forestry, "driving" elements such as mobility, mediation elements such as territories and environment and concurrent elements such as non-cellulosic biomass, the energy mix and the non-energy valorization.

One presents the methods to combat the negative effects of any natural and renewable energy sources, which by their inexhaustibility are one self-capable to assure the sustainable development of the humanity. In this aim one considers for the fortuitous energies: solar with waste and axial rotor twisted blades, wave with wind and river energies the possibilities to satisfy the consume requirements by their combine exploitation, as well as the river Dorin Pavel’s complex uses solutions to take away against the floods and also the drought, like the Black Sea deep-water naturalization with energy recoveries.