• Energy Research

AbstractEmerging evidence suggests that insect populations may be declining at local and global scales, threatening the sustainability of the ecosystem services that insects provide. Insect declines are of particular concern in the Neotropics, which holds several of the world’s hotspots of insect endemism and diversity. Conservation policies are one way to prevent and mitigate insect declines, yet these policies are usually biased toward vertebrate species. Here, we outline some key policy instruments for biodiversity conservation in the Neotropics and discuss their potential contribution and shortcomings for insect biodiversity conservation. These include species-specific action policies, protected areas and Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs), sectoral policies, biodiversity offsetting, market-based mechanisms, and the international policy instruments that underpin these efforts. We highlight that although these policies can potentially benefit insect biodiversity indirectly, there are avenues in which we could better incorporate the specific needs of insects into policy to mitigate the declines mentioned above. We propose several areas of improvement. Firstly, evaluating the extinction risk of more Neotropical insects to better target at-risk species with species-specific policies and conserve their habitats within area-based interventions. Secondly, alternative pest control methods and enhanced monitoring of insects in a range of land-based production sectors. Thirdly, incorporating measurable and achievable insect conservation targets into international policies and conventions. Finally, we emphasise the important roles of community engagement and enhanced public awareness in achieving these improvements to insect conservation policies.

In an increasingly interconnected world, human–environment interactions involving flows of people, organisms, goods, information, and energy are expanding in magnitude and extent, often over long distances. As a universal paradigm for examining these interactions, the telecoupling framework (published in 2013) has been broadly implemented across the world by researchers from diverse disciplines. We conducted a systematic review of the first five years of telecoupling research to evaluate the state of telecoupling science and identify strengths, areas to be improved, and promising avenues for future study. We identified 89 studies using any derivation of the term telecoupling. These works emphasize trade flows, information transfer, and species dispersal at international, national, and regional scales involving one or a few countries, with China, Brazil, and the United States being the most frequently studied countries. Our review showed a rising trend in publications and citations on telecoupling, with 63% of identified telecoupling studies using the framework’s specific language (e.g., “flows”, “agents”). This result suggests that future telecoupling studies could apply the standardized telecoupling language and terminology to better coordinate, synthesize, and operationalize interdisciplinary research. Compelling topics for future research include operationalization of the telecoupling framework, commonalities among telecouplings, telecoupling mechanisms and causality, and telecoupled systems governance. Overall, the first five years of telecoupling research have improved our understanding of human–environment interactions, laying a promising foundation for future social–ecological research in a telecoupled world.

Telecoupled flows of people, organisms, goods, information, and energy are expanding across the globe. Causes are integral components of the telecoupling framework, yet the rigor with which they have been identified and evaluated to date is unknown. We address this knowledge gap by systematically reviewing causal attribution in the telecoupling literature (n = 89 studies) and developing a standardized causal terminology and typology for consistent use in telecoupling research. Causes are defined based on six criteria: sector (e.g., environmental, economic), system of origin (i.e., sending, receiving, spillover), agent, distance, response time (i.e., time lapse between cause and effect), and direction (i.e., producing positive or negative effects). Using case studies from the telecoupling literature, we demonstrate the need to enhance the rigor of telecoupling causal attribution by combining qualitative and quantitative methods via process-tracing, counterfactual analysis, and related approaches. Rigorous qualitative-quantitative causal attribution is critical for accurately assessing the social-ecological causes and consequences of telecouplings and thereby identifying leverage points for informed management and governance of telecoupled systems.

La réalisation des objectifs de développement durable (ODD) nécessite d'équilibrer les demandes en terres entre l'agriculture (ODD 2) et la biodiversité (ODD 15).La production d'huiles végétales, et en particulier d'huile de palme, illustre ces demandes concurrentes et ces compromis.L' huile de palme représente ~40 % de la demande annuelle mondiale actuelle d'huile végétale pour l'alimentation humaine, animale et pour le carburant (210 millions de tonnes (Mt)), mais le palmier à huile planté couvre moins de 5 à 5,5 % de la superficie totale des cultures oléagineuses mondiales (environ 425 Mha), en raison des rendements relativement élevés du palmier à huile.L' expansion récente du palmier à huile dans les régions boisées de Bornéo, de Sumatra et de la péninsule malaise, où plus de 90 % de l'huile de palme mondiale est produite, a suscité de vives inquiétudes quant au rôle du palmier à huile dans la déforestation.La contribution directe de l'expansion du palmier à huile à la déforestation tropicale régionale varie considérablement, allant de 3 % en Afrique de l'Ouest à 47 % en Malaisie.Le palmier à huile est également impliqué dans le drainage et la combustion des tourbières en Asie du Sud-Est.Les impacts environnementaux négatifs documentés d'une telle expansion comprennent le déclin de la biodiversité, les émissions de gaz à effet de serre et la pollution atmosphérique.Toutefois, le palmier à huile produit généralement plus l'huile par superficie par rapport aux autres cultures oléagineuses, est souvent économiquement viable sur des sites inadaptés à la plupart des autres cultures, et génère une richesse considérable pour au moins certains acteurs. La demande mondiale d'huiles végétales devrait augmenter de 46 % d'ici 2050. Répondre à cette demande par une expansion supplémentaire du palmier à huile par rapport à d'autres cultures d'huile végétale entraînera des effets différentiels substantiels sur la biodiversité, la sécurité alimentaire, le changement climatique, la dégradation des terres et les moyens de subsistance. Notre examen souligne que, bien que des lacunes importantes subsistent dans notre compréhension de la relation entre les impacts environnementaux, socioculturels et économiques du palmier à huile, et la portée, la rigueur et l'efficacité des initiatives visant à y remédier, il y a eu peu de recherches sur les impacts et les compromis des autres cultures d'huile végétale. Une plus grande attention de la recherche doit être accordée à l'étude des impacts de la production d'huile de palme par rapport aux alternatives pour les compromis à évaluer à l'échelle mondiale. El cumplimiento de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) requiere equilibrar las demandas de tierras entre la agricultura (ODS 2) y la biodiversidad (ODS 15). La producción de aceites vegetales, y en particular el aceite de palma, ilustra estas demandas y compensaciones competitivas. El aceite de palma representa aproximadamente el 40% de la demanda anual mundial actual de aceite vegetal como alimento, pienso y combustible (210 millones de toneladas (Mt)), pero la palma aceitera plantada cubre menos del 5-5,5% del área total de cultivos oleaginosos mundiales (aprox. 425 Mha). debido a los rendimientos relativamente altos de la palma aceitera. La reciente expansión de la palma aceitera en las regiones boscosas de Borneo, Sumatra y la Península Malaya, donde se produce más del 90% del aceite de palma mundial, ha generado una preocupación sustancial sobre el papel de la palma aceitera en la deforestación. La contribución directa de la expansión de la palma aceitera a la deforestación tropical regional varía ampliamente, desde el 3% en África occidental hasta el 47% en Malasia. La palma aceitera también está implicada en el drenaje y la quema de turberas en el sudeste asiático. Los impactos ambientales negativos documentados de dicha expansión incluyen la disminución de la biodiversidad, las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y la contaminación del aire. Sin embargo, la palma aceitera generalmente produce más. aceite por área que otros cultivos oleaginosos, a menudo es económicamente viable en sitios inadecuados para la mayoría de los otros cultivos y genera una riqueza considerable para al menos algunos actores. Se proyecta que la demanda mundial de aceites vegetales aumentará en un 46% para 2050. Satisfacer esta demanda a través de una expansión adicional de la palma aceitera frente a otros cultivos de aceite vegetal conducirá a efectos diferenciales sustanciales en la biodiversidad, la seguridad alimentaria, el cambio climático, la degradación de la tierra y los medios de vida. Nuestra revisión destaca que, aunque quedan brechas sustanciales en nuestra comprensión de la relación entre los impactos ambientales, socioculturales y económicos de la palma aceitera, y el alcance, la rigurosidad y la efectividad de las iniciativas para abordarlos, ha habido poca investigación sobre los impactos y las compensaciones de otros cultivos de aceite vegetal. Se debe prestar mayor atención a la investigación para investigar los impactos de la producción de aceite de palma en comparación con las alternativas para las compensaciones que se evaluarán a escala mundial. Delivering the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) requires balancing demands on land between agriculture (SDG 2) and biodiversity (SDG 15).The production of vegetable oils, and in particular palm oil, illustrates these competing demands and trade-offs.Palm oil accounts for ~40% of the current global annual demand for vegetable oil as food, animal feed, and fuel (210 million tons (Mt)), but planted oil palm covers less than 5-5.5% of the total global oil crop area (ca.425 Mha), due to oil palm's relatively high yields.Recent oil palm expansion in forested regions of Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula, where >90% of global palm oil is produced, has led to substantial concern around oil palm's role in deforestation.Oil palm expansion's direct contribution to regional tropical deforestation varies widely, ranging from 3% in West Africa to 47% in Malaysia.Oil palm is also implicated in peatland draining and burning in Southeast Asia.Documented negative environmental impacts from such expansion include biodiversity declines, greenhouse gas emissions, and air pollution.However, oil palm generally produces more oil per area than other oil crops, is often economically viable in sites unsuitable for most other crops, and generates considerable wealth for at least some actors.Global demand for vegetable oils is projected to increase by 46% by 2050.Meeting this demand through additional expansion of oil palm versus other vegetable oil crops will lead to substantial differential effects on biodiversity, food security, climate change, land degradation, and livelihoods.Our review highlights that, although substantial gaps remain in our understanding of the relationship between the environmental, socio-cultural and economic impacts of oil palm, and the scope, stringency and effectiveness of initiatives to address these, there has been little research into the impacts and trade-offs of other vegetable oil crops.Greater research attention needs to be given to investigating the impacts of palm oil production compared to alternatives for the trade-offs to be assessed at a global scale. يتطلب تحقيق أهداف التنمية المستدامة (SDGs) موازنة الطلب على الأراضي بين الزراعة (SDG 2) والتنوع البيولوجي (SDG 15). يوضح إنتاج الزيوت النباتية، ولا سيما زيت النخيل، هذه المطالب والمقايضات المتنافسة. يمثل زيت النخيل حوالي40 ٪ من الطلب السنوي العالمي الحالي على الزيوت النباتية كغذاء وعلف حيواني ووقود (210 مليون طن متري)، لكن نخيل الزيت المزروع يغطي أقل من 5-5.5 ٪ من إجمالي مساحة محصول النفط العالمي (حوالي 425 مليون هكتار)، بسبب غلة نخيل الزيت المرتفعة نسبيًا. أدى التوسع الأخير في نخيل الزيت في مناطق الغابات في بورنيو وسومطرة وشبه جزيرة الملايو، حيث يتم إنتاج أكثر من 90 ٪ من زيت النخيل العالمي، إلى قلق كبير حول دور نخيل الزيت في إزالة الغابات. تختلف المساهمة المباشرة لتوسع نخيل الزيت في إزالة الغابات الاستوائية الإقليمية اختلافًا كبيرًا، حيث تتراوح من 3 ٪ في غرب إفريقيا إلى 47 ٪ في ماليزيا. كما يتورط نخيل الزيت في تصريف الأراضي الخثية وحرقها في جنوب شرق آسيا. وتشمل الآثار البيئية السلبية الموثقة من هذا التوسع انخفاض التنوع البيولوجي وانبعاثات غازات الدفيئة وتلوث الهواء. ومع ذلك، ينتج نخيل الزيت عمومًا المزيد من المتوقع أن يزداد الطلب العالمي على الزيوت النباتية بنسبة 46 ٪ بحلول عام 2050. وستؤدي تلبية هذا الطلب من خلال التوسع الإضافي في محاصيل نخيل الزيت مقابل محاصيل الزيوت النباتية الأخرى إلى آثار تفاضلية كبيرة على التنوع البيولوجي والأمن الغذائي وتغير المناخ وتدهور الأراضي وسبل العيش. وتسلط مراجعتنا الضوء على أنه على الرغم من استمرار وجود فجوات كبيرة في فهمنا للعلاقة بين الآثار البيئية والاجتماعية والثقافية والاقتصادية لنخيل الزيت، ونطاق وصرامة وفعالية المبادرات الرامية إلى معالجتها، إلا أنه لم يتم إجراء سوى القليل من الأبحاث حول تأثيرات ومقايضات محاصيل الزيوت النباتية الأخرى. ويلزم إيلاء اهتمام بحثي أكبر للتحقيق في آثار إنتاج زيت النخيل مقارنة ببدائل المقايضات التي سيتم تقييمها على نطاق عالمي.

Increasing connections and influences from near to far have changed social structures, access to natural resources, and essential livelihoods of smallholders (i.e., those with incomes generated primarily from natural resources on small rural properties). However, the potential benefits and negative impacts from these connections to smallholders’ livelihoods and social-ecological effects remain understudied. In this paper, we applied the frameworks of pericoupling and telecoupling (human-nature interactions between adjacent and distant systems, respectively) to systematically investigate how the flows linking smallholder systems to other systems affect their livelihoods, and causing varying economic, social, and environmental effects from case to case. We synthesized 12 cases of smallholder systems around the world that are linked to adjacent and distant systems through flows of goods, people, resources, and/or information. In each case, we summarized smallholders’ agency, i.e., capability on the formation or operation of these flows, and the changes on livelihoods on the economic, social, and environment effects. Results suggest that strong smallholder agency is associated more with positive than negative effects. Smallholders with medium to high agency have greater overall well-being within the area of interest. Smallholders integrated in pericoupled systems often have strong agency. Being spillover systems in an intercoupled system (e.g., large-scale agricultural investments) can often cause negative outcomes unless smallholders have additional pericoupling flows. Our findings suggest one potential approach to ending poverty and increasing well-being for smallholders is creating and increasing pericoupling flows to empower smallholders for desired livelihood and social-ecological outcomes.