• Energy Research

Recently, partly due to the increasing carbon consciousness in the electorates and partly due to the imminent introduction of the Australian Government's Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS), estimating carbon footprints is becoming increasingly necessary in agriculture. By taking data from several sources, this study estimates the national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from a variety of farm inputs, for the 23 key vegetables crops grown in Australia. For the 121,122 ha of land occupied by vegetable farms, there are 1.1 MtCO(2)e GHG emissions or 9.2 tCO(2)e ha(-1). In total, 65% of total GHG emissions from the vegetable industry are due to electricity use for irrigation and post-harvest on-farm activities, 17% from soil N(2)O emissions due to N fertiliser use, 10% from agrochemicals, 7% through fossils fuels and 1% from on-farm machinery. The top four vegetables (by area), potatoes, lettuce, tomatoes and broccoli account for 29.1%, 7.9%, 5.9% and 7.2% of total GHG emissions from vegetables, respectively. However, the ratio of GHG emissions between the highest and lowest-emitting crops per hectare and per tonne, are different. Therefore, care must be exercised in carbon footprint labelling vegetable products to ensure that the labels reflect carbon emissions on a per tonnage basis.

Climate change vulnerability depends on who you are, where you are and what you do. The indigenous communities who primarily depend on natural resources for subsistence livelihoods are among the first and most affected by climate change. Climate models have predicted pronounced warming in high altitude regions of the Himalayas. The transhumant communities of the Himalayas follow traditional lifestyles based on seasonal livestock rearing and subsistence agriculture. There is however, no information on how vulnerable transhumant communities are to climate change, and how vulnerability of transhumant herders differs across the mountainous areas of Nepal. Based on semi-structured interviews with transhumant herders and using the IPCC climate change vulnerability framework, this study assessed and compared the vulnerability of transhumant communities from three districts representing Eastern, Central and Western mountainous region of Nepal. The results showed that the livelihood vulnerability and the climate change vulnerability differ across sites; both of them having lowest index values in the Central region. The vulnerability dimensions viz. exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity are largely influenced by diversity in livelihood strategies, income sources and crops, and access to food, water and health facilities. The findings will inform the design of policies and programmes to reduce vulnerability and enhance adaptive capacity of indigenous communities in general and the transhumant communities of the Himalayas in particular.

Abstract This review analyses the major themes extant across 199 research articles published in various peer-reviewed forestry and economics journals between January 2002 and June 2009 on the topic of forest-related environmental markets. The reviewed articles are categorized according to four areas of research: forest stewardship and sustainable supply chain certification; renewable energy generation from woody biomass; forest-based greenhouse gas emissions offsets and carbon markets; and ecosystem services from forests. Two key research questions are identified for future research: (1) how can certification schemes be used to promote ecologically and socially sustainable bioenergy generation from forest-related feed stocks and (2) how can certification schemes be used to promote ecologically and socially sustainable afforestation-based greenhouse gas emissions offsets that offer broader social and ecosystem benefits on appropriate regional scales?

Greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is one of the most iconic wildlife species in the world. Once reduced to fewer than 500 during the 1960s, its global population has been recovering and is now over 3500, thanks to effective conservation programs in India and Nepal, the only two countries in the world where this species is found. It is one of the greatest success stories in biodiversity conservation given that hundreds of other species have disappeared, and thousands of species are on the verge of extinction. However, poaching is not the only threat for the long-term survival of rhinoceros. Loss and degradation of grassland habitat and the drying-up of wetlands are emerging threats predicted to worsen in the future, but the published information on rhinoceros has never been synthesized. In order to better understand the trends and current status of rhinoceros research and identify research gaps inhibiting its long-term conservation, we analyzed the themes discussed in 215 articles covering a period of 33 years between 1985 and 2018. Our findings suggest that studies on both free-ranging and captive rhinoceros are skewed towards biological aspects of the species including morphology, anatomy, physiology, and behaviour. There are no studies addressing the likely effects of climate change on the species, and limited information is available on rhinoceros genetics, diseases, habitat dynamics and the impacts of tourism and other infrastructure development in and around rhinoceros habitat. These issues will need addressing to maintain the conservation success of greater one-horned rhinoceros into the future.

Abstract Trees outside forests (TOF) are integral components of rural livelihoods providing fodder, fruit, firewood, timber, and other ecosystem services. The extent and magnitude of the contribution of TOF may vary with the different socioeconomic and demographic factors of the households (HHs) within a community. Based on a comprehensive survey of 78 HHs and an inventory of their farms in the Tanahun district, Nepal, this study assessed the species diversity, richness, and carbon storage in TOF in various socioeconomic strata. We found 623 individual trees representing 38 species and 21 families. Species diversity was the highest in the farmland owned by indigenous people according to caste, middle-income class according to the well-being class, and farmers according to the main occupation of the HH. Species diversity varied significantly with the amount of land, the number of livestock, and the distance from one's home to forests; furthermore, the carbon stock per HH varied significantly with the amount of land, the number of livestock, caste, and well-being class. TOF contribute to a national carbon budget and therefore need to be considered in nationally determined contributions and performance-based payments in forestry systems (REDD+). Efforts to regularly measure and monitor TOF by including them in the national forest inventory system are crucial to record their contributions to the overall livelihood of local people and the national carbon budget.

Le changement climatique a commencé à avoir un impact sur les espèces, les écosystèmes, la diversité génétique au sein des espèces et les interactions écologiques et constitue donc une menace sérieuse pour la conservation de la biodiversité à l'échelle mondiale. En l'absence de mesures d'adaptation adéquates, la biodiversité peut continuer à décliner et de nombreuses espèces risquent de disparaître. Étant donné que la température mondiale continue d'augmenter, l'adaptation au changement climatique est devenue un cadre global pour la planification de la conservation. Nous avons identifié des actions d'adaptation au changement climatique en cours et probables pour une plus grande conservation du rhinocéros à une corne au Népal grâce à une combinaison de revue de la littérature et d'enquêtes auprès d'informateurs clés (n=53), des discussions de groupe (n=37) et des consultations d'experts (n=9), et ont hiérarchisé les actions d'adaptation identifiées par le biais de la consultation des parties prenantes (n=17). La majorité des informateurs clés (>80 %) ont indiqué que le changement climatique avait eu un impact sur les rhinocéros, et plus de 65 % d'entre eux pensent que l'adéquation de l'habitat des rhinocéros au Népal s'est déplacée vers l'ouest. Malgré ces risques perçus, les impacts du changement climatique n'ont pas été bien intégrés dans la planification formelle de la conservation des rhinocéros. Sur 20 actions d'adaptation identifiées dans le cadre de neuf stratégies d'adaptation, l'identification et la protection des refuges climatiques, la restauration des habitats existants grâce à la gestion des zones humides et des prairies, la création de hautes terres artificielles dans les plaines inondables pour fournir un refuge aux rhinocéros lors de graves inondations, et leur transfert vers d'autres habitats appropriés ont reçu une priorité plus élevée. Ces mesures d'adaptation peuvent contribuer à réduire la vulnérabilité des rhinocéros aux impacts probables du changement climatique. Cette étude est la première du genre au Népal et devrait fournir une ligne directrice pour aligner les mesures de conservation en cours dans la planification de l'adaptation au changement climatique pour les rhinocéros. En outre, nous soulignons la nécessité d'intégrer les impacts probables du changement climatique El cambio climático ha comenzado a afectar a las especies, los ecosistemas, la diversidad genética dentro de las especies y las interacciones ecológicas y, por lo tanto, es una grave amenaza para la conservación de la biodiversidad a nivel mundial. En ausencia de medidas de adaptación adecuadas, la biodiversidad puede seguir disminuyendo y muchas especies posiblemente se extingan. Dado que la temperatura global continúa aumentando, la adaptación al cambio climático ha surgido como un marco general para la planificación de la conservación. Identificamos acciones de adaptación al cambio climático en curso y probables para una mayor conservación del rinoceronte de un cuerno en Nepal a través de una combinación de revisión de la literatura, encuestas de informantes clave (n=53), discusiones de grupos focales (n=37) y consulta de expertos (n=9), y priorizaron las acciones de adaptación identificadas a través de la consulta a las partes interesadas (n=17). La mayoría de los informantes clave (>80%) informaron que el cambio climático ha estado afectando al rinoceronte, y más del 65% de ellos creen que la idoneidad del hábitat del rinoceronte en Nepal se ha estado desplazando hacia el oeste. A pesar de estos riesgos percibidos, los impactos del cambio climático no se han incorporado bien en la planificación formal de la conservación del rinoceronte. De las 20 acciones de adaptación identificadas en nueve estrategias de adaptación, la identificación y proteger los refugios climáticos, restaurando los hábitats existentes a través de la gestión de humedales y pastizales, creando tierras altas artificiales en llanuras aluviales para proporcionar refugio a los rinocerontes durante inundaciones severas y trasladándolos a otros hábitats adecuados que recibieron mayor prioridad. Estas acciones de adaptación pueden contribuir a reducir la vulnerabilidad de los rinocerontes a los probables impactos del cambio climático. Este estudio es el primero de su tipo en Nepal y se espera que proporcione una guía para alinear las medidas de conservación en curso con la planificación de adaptación al cambio climático para los rinocerontes. Además, enfatizamos la necesidad de integrar los probables impactos del cambio climático Climate change has started impacting species, ecosystems, genetic diversity within species, and ecological interactions and is thus a serious threat to conserving biodiversity globally.In the absence of adequate adaptation measures, biodiversity may continue to decline, and many species will possibly become extinct.Given that global temperature continues to increase, climate change adaptation has emerged as an overarching framework for conservation planning.We identified both ongoing and probable climate change adaptation actions for greater one-horned rhinoceros conservation in Nepal through a combination of literature review, key informant surveys (n=53), focus group discussions (n=37) and expert consultation (n=9), and prioritised the identified adaptation actions through stakeholder consultation (n=17).The majority of key informants (>80%) reported that climate change has been impacting rhinoceros, and more than 65% of them believe that rhinoceros habitat suitability in Nepal has been shifting westwards.Despite these perceived risks, climate change impacts have not been incorporated well into formal conservation planning for rhinoceros.Out of 20 identified adaptation actions under nine adaptation strategies, identifying and protecting climate refugia, restoring the existing habitats through wetland and grassland management, creating artificial highlands in floodplains to provide rhinoceros with refuge during severe floods, and translocating them to other suitable habitats received higher priority.These adaptation actions may contribute to reducing the vulnerability of rhinoceros to the likely impacts of climate change.This study is the first of its kind in Nepal and is expected to provide a guideline to align ongoing conservation measures into climate change adaptation planning for rhinoceros.Further, we emphasise the need to integrating likely climate change impacts بدأ تغير المناخ يؤثر على الأنواع والنظم الإيكولوجية والتنوع الجيني داخل الأنواع والتفاعلات البيئية، وبالتالي فهو يشكل تهديدًا خطيرًا للحفاظ على التنوع البيولوجي على مستوى العالم. في غياب تدابير التكيف الكافية، قد يستمر التنوع البيولوجي في الانخفاض، وربما تنقرض العديد من الأنواع. نظرًا لاستمرار ارتفاع درجة الحرارة العالمية، برز التكيف مع تغير المناخ كإطار شامل لتخطيط الحفظ. لقد حددنا إجراءات التكيف مع تغير المناخ الجارية والمحتملة من أجل الحفاظ على وحيد القرن في نيبال من خلال مزيج من مراجعة الأدبيات والدراسات الاستقصائية الرئيسية للمخبرين (العدد=53)، ومناقشات مجموعة التركيز (n=37) ومشاورات الخبراء (n=9)، وتحديد أولويات إجراءات التكيف المحددة من خلال التشاور مع أصحاب المصلحة (n=17). أفاد غالبية المخبرين الرئيسيين (>80 ٪) أن تغير المناخ كان يؤثر على وحيد القرن، ويعتقد أكثر من 65 ٪ منهم أن ملاءمة موائل وحيد القرن في نيبال قد تحولت غربًا. على الرغم من هذه المخاطر المتصورة، لم يتم دمج آثار تغير المناخ بشكل جيد في التخطيط الرسمي لحفظ وحيد القرن. من بين 20 إجراء تكيف محدد بموجب تسع استراتيجيات للتكيف، تم تحديد وحماية ملاجئ المناخ، واستعادة الموائل الحالية من خلال إدارة الأراضي الرطبة والمراعي، وإنشاء مرتفعات اصطناعية في السهول الفيضية لتوفير ملاذ لوحيد القرن أثناء الفيضانات الشديدة، ونقلهم إلى موائل مناسبة أخرى حظيت بأولوية أعلى. وقد تسهم إجراءات التكيف هذه في الحد من تعرض وحيد القرن للآثار المحتملة لتغير المناخ. هذه الدراسة هي الأولى من نوعها في نيبال ومن المتوقع أن تقدم مبادئ توجيهية لمواءمة تدابير الحفظ الجارية في تخطيط التكيف مع تغير المناخ لوحيد القرن. علاوة على ذلك، نؤكد على الحاجة إلى دمج آثار تغير المناخ المحتملة

Abstract Most developing countries, like Nepal, are expected to experience the greatest impact of climate change (CC) sooner and on a greater magnitude than other developed countries. Increase in the magnitude and frequency of extreme rainfall events is likely to increase the risk of flooding in rivers. The West Rapti River basin is one of the most flood prone and also one of the most dynamic and economically important basins of Nepal. This study elicits the willingness to pay (WTP) from the local people in the basin to reduce risks from possible floods due to CC. The WTP for flood mitigation in different flood hazard zones and flood scenarios were determined using referendum method and a face to face questionnaire survey. From a total of 720 households across all flood zones, a stratified randomly selected sample of 210 households was surveyed. The sample included households from a range of socio-economic backgrounds. The average WTP varied by flood hazard zone and within each zone, by CC-induced flood scenarios. The average WTP of respondents was highest for the critical flood prone zone, followed by moderate and low flood prone zones. Similarly, within each zone, the average WTP increased with increasing flood magnitudes due to CC. The variation of average WTP of respondents in different flood prone zones and scenarios indicate different levels of perceived severity. Moreover, the introduction of the concept of ‘man-day’ or ‘labour-day’ in WTP research is a novel and applicable methodological approach, particularly in the South Asian region. The findings of this study are useful for policy implications for the design of participatory flood management plans in the river basin.

Several studies have quantified the energy consumption associated with crop production in various countries. However, these studies have not compared the energy consumption from a broad range of farming practices currently in practice, such as zero tillage, conventional tillage and irrigated farming systems. This study examines direct on-farm energy use for high value grain crops grown under different farming practices in Australia. Grain farming processes are identified and “typical” farming operation data are collected from several sources, including published and unpublished literature, as well as expert interviews. The direct on-farm energy uses are assessed for 27 scenarios, including three high value grain crops―wheat, barley and sorghum―for three regions (Northern, Southern and Western Australia) under three farming conditions with both dryland (both for conventional and zero-tillage) and irrigated conditions. It is found that energy requirement for farming operations is directly related to the intensity and frequency of farming operations, which in turn is related to tillage practices, soil types, irrigation systems, local climate, and crop types. Among the three studied regions, Western Australia requires less direct on-farm energy for each crop, mainly due to the easily workable sandy soils and adoption of zero tillage systems. In irrigated crops, irrigation energy remains a major contributor to the total on-farm energy demand, accounting for up to 85% of total energy use.

Abstract Integration of the mitigation and adaptation roles of forests is important in addressing climate change issues. Community forests (CFs) have capacity to contribute in both roles as local communities are collectively working to improve forests and to fulfil their own basic forest product needs. Nowadays, an incentive mechanism for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, conservation of forests, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks in forests (REDD+) is emerging and already has received considerable attention in achieving climate change mitigation whereas there has been little analysis of its potential contribution to adaptation objectives, particularly at the community level. Therefore the overarching goal of this study was to analyse CFs from a mitigation and adaptation perspective. This study assesses 105 CFs covering a range of forest types managed by socially diverse communities of Nepal. Two point carbon data (2010 and 2013) was analysed to investigate differences in carbon stocks in these forests following the introduction of a REDD+ pilot program in Nepal. Similarly, a document review and focused group discussions were organised to evaluate the livelihood support and adaptation potential of pilot REDD+ CFs. This study found that community forest user groups (CFUGs) have increased forest carbon stocks and that the pilot REDD+ projects are also delivering livelihood benefits which ultimately will help adaptation to adverse climatic conditions. However, the motivation for communities to realise REDD+ carbon incentives may reduce the food supplement capacity of forests by limiting vegetation diversity.

Abstract The Kyoto Protocol adopted three flexible market-based mechanisms (Emissions Trading; Joint Implementation; Clean Development Mechanism) to meet emission reduction targets in a cost-effective manner. Of these, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the only mechanism that links developed and developing countries. China has been a dominant player in CDM markets with >50.86% of the world's 4768 CDM projects. This study surveyed key CDM stakeholders from which the identification and ranking of the 10 most important factors that determine the selection of CDM investors in China. The most important factors were “reputation of company” and “experience in CDM project in China” whilst “personal friendship or relationship” was the least influential. European countries (mainly UK, The Netherlands, Sweden and Germany) are the major investors and have both strong reputations in the CDM arena in addition to having assisted China in capacity development activities for CDM in early 2000. An understanding of these selection factors that potential CDM hosts use in their joint venture decisions should benefit CDM investors. This knowledge should also provide the policy and strategic level framework for future potential CDM hosts in other developing countries.