• Energy Research

AbstractPerchloric acid was used as a catalyst for the treatment of free fatty acid (FFA) in acidic crude palm oil (ACPO). Perchloric acid shows reduced the FFA content from 8.8% to 1% using 1% of acid to ACPO and the conversion of FFA to fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) was 88%. The produced biodiesel from treated ACPO meets international biodiesel standards such as EN 14214 and ASTM D6751. Perchloric acid shows high catalytic activity for the conversion of FFA to FAME and can be used to treat a wide range of acidic oils and fats.

Sulfur compounds in transportation fuels are a pressing issue currently due to the more stringent limits of sulfur content. Sulfur compounds lead to SOx emissions which cause many environmental and health problems. The conventional refinery desulfurization process, hydrodesulfurization (HDS), is conducted at elevated temperatures and pressures, using expensive hydrogen gas and catalysts. This review aims to discuss the merits and drawbacks of the major areas of alternative desulfurization technologies, including biodesulfurization, adsorption, extractive and oxidative desulfurization, with special emphasis on the role of ionic liquids (ILs) as distinctive multi-task fluids. With the rapid development of ILs in the last decades, more effective and reliable desulfurization techniques are foreseeable.

Mixed industrial palm oil (MIPO) is proposed in this study as a renewable and agro-industrial raw material to produce biodiesel fuel. MIPO was obtained by mixing of acidic crude palm oil with sludge palm oil. Due to the high level of free fatty acid (FFA) in MIPO (8.5 %), esterification is needed to remove the acidity to the minimum level before biodiesel production. This is the first time 1-propanesulphonic acid (1-PSA) has been introduced as a catalyst for the pretreatment of MIPO. Using optimum conditions, the FFA content was successfully reduced from 8.5 % to less than 1 %. The biodiesel produced meets the international standards (ASTM D6751 and EN 14214). 1-PSA is therefore a promising catalyst that can be used to treat various types of acidic oils.

Abstract Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are green solvents that are developing rapidly, used in many types of applications as well as fundamental investigations. The physicochemical properties of DESs are one of the most important factors which led to their increased interest in science and technology. DESs are thermally and chemically stable, non-flammable and have a negligible vapor pressure. Furthermore, most of the newly formulated DESs are liquids at room temperature. DESs are more economical and less expensive compared to ionic liquids. DESs are frequently prepared from renewable and non-toxic precursors, in addition, there are wide selections of biocompatible and biodegradable DESs. Hence, DESs have been used in many applications and processes such as biorefinery, lignocellulose dissolution, bioactive compound extraction and electrochemical applications. In this review, an update of the application of DESs in biomass processing as renewable sources is presented. This review aims to cover as much as possible the ongoing research and applications of DES and invite opinions to broaden the applications of DESs, rather than concentrating on the physicochemical fundamentals of new DESs. The future of these solvents is bright but require further investigations and efforts for a better understanding and future for sustainable resources.