• Energy Research

AbstractIn the North Atlantic, euphausiids (krill) form a major link between primary production and predators including commercially exploited fish. This basin is warming very rapidly, with species expected to shift northwards following their thermal tolerances. Here we show, however, that there has been a 50% decline in surface krill abundance over the last 60 years that occurred in situ, with no associated range shift. While we relate these changes to the warming climate, our study is the first to document an in situ squeeze on living space within this system. The warmer isotherms are shifting measurably northwards but cooler isotherms have remained relatively static, stalled by the subpolar fronts in the NW Atlantic. Consequently the two temperatures defining the core of krill distribution (7–13 °C) were 8° of latitude apart 60 years ago but are presently only 4° apart. Over the 60 year period the core latitudinal distribution of euphausiids has remained relatively stable so a ‘habitat squeeze’, with loss of 4° of latitude in living space, could explain the decline in krill. This highlights that, as the temperature warms, not all species can track isotherms and shift northward at the same rate with both losers and winners emerging under the ‘Atlantification’ of the sub-Arctic.

AbstractAntarctic krill play an important role in biogeochemical cycles and can potentially generate high-particulate organic carbon (POC) fluxes to the deep ocean. They also have an unusual trait of moulting continuously throughout their life-cycle. We determine the krill seasonal contribution to POC flux in terms of faecal pellets (FP), exuviae and carcasses from sediment trap samples collected in the Southern Ocean. We found that krill moulting generated an exuviae flux of similar order to that of FP, together accounting for 87% of an annual POC flux (22.8 g m−2 y−1). Using an inverse modelling approach, we determined the krill population size necessary to generate this flux peaked at 261 g m−2. This study shows the important role of krill exuviae as a vector for POC flux. Since krill moulting cycle depends on temperature, our results highlight the sensitivity of POC flux to rapid regional environmental change.

Hyperiid amphipods are predatory pelagic crustaceans that are particularly prevalent in high-latitude oceans. Many species are likely to have co-evolved with soft-bodied zooplankton groups such as salps and medusae, using them as substrate, for food, shelter or reproduction. Compared to other pelagic groups, such as fish, euphausiids and soft-bodied zooplankton, hyperiid amphipods are poorly studied especially in terms of their distribution and ecology. Hyperiids of the genus Themisto, comprising seven distinct species, are key players in temperate and cold-water pelagic ecosystems where they reach enormous levels of biomass. In these areas, they are important components of marine food webs, and they are major prey for many commercially important fish and squid stocks. In northern parts of the Southern Ocean, Themisto are so prevalent that they are considered to take on the role that Antarctic krill play further south. Nevertheless, although they are around the same size as krill, and may also occur in swarms, their feeding behaviour and mode of reproduction are completely different, hence their respective impacts on ecosystem structure differ. Themisto are major predators of meso- and macrozooplankton in several major oceanic regions covering shelves to open ocean from the polar regions to the subtropics. Based on a combination of published and unpublished occurrence data, we plot out the distributions of the seven species of Themisto. Further, we consider the different predators that rely on Themisto for a large fraction of their diet, demonstrating their major importance for higher trophic levels such as fish, seabirds and mammals. For instance, T. gaudichaudii in the Southern Ocean comprises a major part of the diets of around 80 different species of squid, fish, seabirds and marine mammals, while T. libellula in the Bering Sea and Greenland waters is a main prey item for commercially exploited fish species. We also consider the ongoing and predicted range expansions of Themisto species in light of environmental changes. In northern high latitudes, sub-Arctic Themisto species are replacing truly Arctic, ice-bound, species. In the Southern Ocean, a range expansion of T. gaudichaudii is expected as water masses warm, impacting higher trophic levels and biogeochemical cycles. We identify the many knowlegde gaps that must be filled in order to evaluate, monitor and predict the ecological shifts that will result from the changing patterns of distribution and abundance of this important pelagic group.

AbstractThe biogeographic response of oceanic planktonic communities to climatic change has a large influence on the future stability of marine food webs and the functioning of global biogeochemical cycles. Temperature plays a pivotal role in determining the distribution of these communities and ocean warming has the potential to cause major distributional shifts, particularly in polar regions where the thermal envelope is narrow. We considered the impact of long‐term ocean warming on the spatial distribution of Southern Ocean mesozooplankton communities through examining plankton abundance in relation to sea surface temperature between two distinct periods, separated by around 60 years. Analyses considered 16 dominant mesozooplankton taxa (in terms of biomass and abundance) in the southwest Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean, from net samples and in situ temperature records collected during the Discovery Investigations (1926–1938) and contemporary campaigns (1996–2013). Sea surface temperature was found to have increased significantly by 0.74°C between the two eras. The corresponding sea surface temperature at which community abundance peaked was also significantly higher in contemporary times, by 0.98°C. Spatial projections indicated that the geographical location of community peak abundance had remained the same between the two eras despite the poleward advance of sea surface isotherms. If the community had remained within the same thermal envelope as in the 1920s–1930s, community peak abundance would be 500 km further south in the contemporary era. Studies in the northern hemisphere have found that dominant taxa, such as calanoid copepods, have conserved their thermal niches and tracked surface isotherms polewards. The fact that this has not occurred in the Southern Ocean suggests that other selective pressures, particularly food availability and the properties of underlying water masses, place greater constraints on spatial distributions in this region. It further demonstrates that this community is thermally resilient to present levels of sea surface warming.

This file has projected annual mean Sea Surface Temperature (SST) averaged over the time period 1981-2100. Data are taken from 15 CMIP5 climate models under two emission scenarios, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. Where possible, multiple realisations of a climate model are included, as well as the mean output from these realisations. The present day baseline annual mean SST layer (1982-2001) is also available. Two spatial resolutions are available: 1x1 degree and 0.25x0.25 degree created by a spline interpolation procedure in ArcGIS v.10.4.1. All original CMIP5 data are available at https://esgf-node.llnl.gov/projects/cmip5/. See README file for further information.

In the Southern Ocean, several zooplankton taxonomic groups, euphausiids, copepods, salps and pteropods, are notable because of their biomass and abundance and their roles in maintaining food webs and ecosystem structure and function, including the provision of globally important ecosystem services. These groups are consumers of microbes, primary and secondary producers, and are prey for fishes, cephalopods, seabirds, and marine mammals. In providing the link between microbes, primary production, and higher trophic levels these taxa influence energy flows, biological production and biomass, biogeochemical cycles, carbon flux and food web interactions thereby modulating the structure and functioning of ecosystems. Additionally, Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) and various fish species are harvested by international fisheries. Global and local drivers of change are expected to affect the dynamics of key zooplankton species, which may have potentially profound and wide-ranging implications for Southern Ocean ecosystems and the services they provide. Here we assess the current understanding of the dominant metazoan zooplankton within the Southern Ocean, including Antarctic krill and other key euphausiid, copepod, salp and pteropod species. We provide a systematic overview of observed and potential future responses of these taxa to a changing Southern Ocean and the functional relationships by which drivers may impact them. To support future ecosystem assessments and conservation and management strategies, we also identify priorities for Southern Ocean zooplankton research.