• Energy Research

The investigation of degradation of seven distinct sets (with a number of individual cells of n $ 12) of state of the art organic photovoltaic devices prepared by leading research laboratories with a combination of imaging methods is reported. All devices have been shipped to and degraded at Risø DTU up to 1830 hours in accordance with established ISOS-3 protocols under defined illumination conditions. Imaging of device function at different stages of degradation was performed by laser-beam induced current (LBIC) scanning; luminescence imaging, specifically photoluminescence (PLI) and electroluminescence (ELI); as well as by lock-in thermography (LIT). Each of the imaging techniques exhibits its specific advantages with respect to sensing certain degradation features, which will be compared and discussed here in detail. As a consequence, a combination of several imaging techniques yields very conclusive information about the degradation processes controlling device function. The large variety of device architectures in turn enables valuable progress in the proper interpretation of imaging results—hence revealing the benefits of this large scale cooperation in making a step forward in the understanding of organic solar cell aging and its interpretation by state-of-the-art imaging methods.

Aqueous nanoparticle dispersions of a series of three low-band-gap polymers poly[4,8-bis(2-ethylhexyloxy)benzo(1,2-b:4,5-b')dithiophene-alt-5,6-bis(octyloxy)-4,7-di(thiophen-2-yl)(2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)-5,5'-diyl] (P1), poly[(4,4'-bis(2-ethylhexyl)dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]silole)-2,6-diyl-alt-(2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)-4,7-diyl] (P2), and poly[2,3-bis-(3-octyloxyphenyl)quinoxaline-5,8-diyl-alt-thiophene-2,5-diyl] (P3) were prepared using ultrasonic treatment of a chloroform solution of the polymer and [6,6]-phenyl-C(61)-butyric acid methyl ester ([60]PCBM) mixed with an aqueous solution of sodium dodecylsulphate (SDS). The size of the nanoparticles was established using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) of the aqueous dispersions and by both atomic force microscopy (AFM) and using both grazing incidence SAXS (GISAXS) and grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) in the solid state as coated films. The aqueous dispersions were dialyzed to remove excess detergent and concentrated to a solid content of approximately 60 mg mL(-1). The formation of films for solar cells using the aqueous dispersion required the addition of the nonionic detergent FSO-100 at a concentration of 5 mg mL(-1). This enabled slot-die coating of high quality films with a dry thickness of 126 ± 19, 500 ± 25, and 612 ± 22 nm P1, P2, and P3, respectively for polymer solar cells. Large area inverted polymer solar cells were thus prepared based on the aqueous inks. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) reached for each of the materials was 0.07, 0.55, and 0.15% for P1, P2, and P3, respectively. The devices were prepared using coating and printing of all layers including the metal back electrodes. All steps were carried out using roll-to-roll (R2R) slot-die and screen printing methods on flexible substrates. All five layers were processed using environmentally friendly methods and solvents. Two of the layers were processed entirely from water (the electron transport layer and the active layer).

Abstract Solar cells that convert sunlight into electrical power have demonstrated a large and consistent growth through several decades. The growth has spawned research on new technologies that potentially enable much faster, less costly and environmentally friendly manufacture from earth abundant materials. Here we review carbon based solar cells through a complete analysis of all the data that has been reported so far and we highlight what can be expected from carbon based technologies and draw scenarios of how it can be made of immediate use.

Abstract Large area polymer tandem solar cells completely processed using roll-to-roll (R2R) coating and printing techniques are demonstrated. A stable tandem structure was achieved by the use of orthogonal ink solvents for the coating of all layers, including both active layers. Processing solvents included water, alcohols and chlorobenzene. Open-circuit voltages close to the expected sum of sub cell voltages were achieved, while the overall efficiency of the tandem cells was found to be limited by the low yielding back cell, which was processed from water based ink. Many of the challenges associated with upscaling the multilayer tandem cells were identified giving valuable information for future experiments and development.

Abstract Double slot-die coating using aqueous inks was employed for the simultaneous coating of the active layer and the hole transport layer (HTL) in fully roll-to-roll (R2R) processed polymer solar cells. The double layer film was coated directly onto an electron transport layer (ETL) comprising doped zinc oxide that was processed by single slot-die coating from water. The active layer comprised poly-3-hexylthiophene:Phenyl-C 61 -butyric acid methyl ester (P3HT:PCBM) as a dispersion of nanoparticles with a radius of 46 nm in water characterized using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The HTL was a dispersion of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) in water. The films were analyzed using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) as chemical probe and X-ray reflectometry as physical probe, confirming the identity of the layered structure. The devices were completed with a back electrode of either Cu tape or evaporated Ag. Under standard solar spectrum irradiation (AM1.5G), current–voltage characterization ( J–V ) yielded an open-circuit voltage ( V oc ), short-circuit current ( J sc ) , fill factor ( FF), and power conversion efficiency ( PCE ) of 0.24 V, 0.5 mA cm −2 , 25%, and 0.03%, respectively, for the best double slot-die coated cell. A single slot-die coated cell using the same aqueous inks and device architecture yielded a V oc , J sc , FF , and PCE of 0.45 V, 1.95 mA cm −2 , 33.1%, and 0.29%, respectively.

Inverted all polymer solar cells based on a blend of a perylene diimide based polymer acceptor and a dithienosilole based polymer donor were fabricated from small area devices to roll-to-roll (R2R) coated and printed large area modules. The device performance was successfully optimized by using solvent additive to tune the phase separation. By adding 2% chloronaphthalene as solvent additive for small area (0.25 cm2) devices, a power conversion efficiency (PCE) up to 0.63% was achieved for inverted geometry, higher than that (0.39%) of conventional geometry. This polymer blend showed excellent solution processibility and R2R coated and printed large area (4.2 cm2) solar cells exhibited a PCE of 0.20%.

Abstract We demonstrate a method for the preparation of multijunction polymer solar cells without the use of vacuum evaporation methods or indium tin oxide (ITO). The entire layer stack is prepared by printing or coating of each layer. The number of layers typically employed in complete devices exceeds ten and to efficiently identify layers and interfaces that are not robust we developed a double sided illumination method and demonstrate how layer thicknesses can be optimized with respect to the roll processing in the aim of achieving functional tandem devices. The devices were prepared directly on barrier foil and were later encapsulated. In this study the same active material comprising poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) and phenyl-C 61 -butyric acid methyl ester ([60]PCBM) was employed using nanoparticle based zinc oxide for electron selectivity and several different PEDOT:PSS formulations for hole selectivity, electrode- and recombination layer formation. A novel slanted comb silver grid electrode structure was employed to enable efficient double sided illumination and minimize shunts. The operational stability of the tandem devices evaluated under ISOS-D-2 conditions demonstrated less variation in stability between devices than similar single junctions prepared in the same manner for reference. We demonstrate lifetime studies for 480 h without any sign of degradation and estimate that the tandem or multijunction polymer solar cells are as stable as single junctions.

AbstractOrganic photovoltaics (OPVs) evolve in an exponential manner in the two key areas of efficiency and stability. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) has in the last decade been increased by almost a factor of ten approaching 10%. A main concern has been the stability that was previously measured in minutes, but can now, in favorable circumstances, exceed many thousands of hours. This astonishing achievement is the subject of this article, which reviews the developments in stability/degradation of OPVs in the last five years. This progress has been gained by several developments, such as inverted device structures of the bulk heterojunction geometry device, which allows for more stable metal electrodes, the choice of more photostable active materials, the introduction of interfacial layers, and roll‐to‐roll fabrication, which promises fast and cheap production methods while creating its own challenges in terms of stability.