• Energy Research

International climate negotiations have stressed the importance of considering emissions from forest degradation under the planned REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation + enhancing forest carbon stocks) mechanism. However, most research, pilot-REDD+ projects and carbon certification agencies have focused on deforestation and there appears to be a gap in knowledge on complex mosaic landscapes containing degraded forests, smallholder agriculture, agroforestry and plantations. In this paper we therefore review current research on how avoided forest degradation may affect emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) and expected co-benefits in terms of biodiversity and livelihoods. There are still high uncertainties in measuring and monitoring emissions of carbon and other GHG from mosaic landscapes with forest degradation since most research has focused on binary analyses of forest vs. deforested land. Studies on the impacts of forest degradation on biodiversity contain mixed results and there is little empirical evidence on the influence of REDD+ on local livelihoods and tenure security, partly due to the lack of actual payment schemes. Governance structures are also more complex in landscapes with degraded forests as there are often multiple owners and types of rights to land and trees. Recent technological advances in remote sensing have improved estimation of carbon stock changes but establishment of historic reference levels is still challenged by the availability of sensor systems and ground measurements during the reference period. The inclusion of forest degradation in REDD+ calls for a range of new research efforts to enhance our knowledge of how to assess the impacts of avoided forest degradation. A first step will be to ensure that complex mosaic landscapes can be recognised under REDD+ on their own merits.

Les changements économiques mondiaux et les interventions politiques conduisent les transitions des systèmes à marée montante (LFS) vers des utilisations alternatives des terres dans les hautes terres d'Asie du Sud-Est. Cette étude présente un examen systématique de l'impact de ces transitions sur les moyens de subsistance et les services écosystémiques dans la région. Plus de 17 000 études publiées entre 1950 et 2015 ont été réduites, en fonction de leur pertinence et de leur qualité, à 93 études pour une analyse plus approfondie. Notre analyse des transitions de l'utilisation des terres des systèmes de culture alternée à intensifiée a montré plusieurs résultats : plus de ménages avaient augmenté le revenu global, mais ces avantages ont entraîné des coûts importants tels que la réduction des pratiques coutumières, le bien-être socio-économique, les options de subsistance et les rendements de base. L'examen des effets des transitions sur les propriétés du sol a révélé des impacts négatifs sur le carbone organique du sol, la capacité d'échange cationique et le carbone hors sol. Pris ensemble, les facteurs immédiats et sous-jacents de la transition de l'EPA vers des utilisations alternatives des terres, en particulier l'intensification des cultures vivaces et annuelles de rente, ont entraîné une baisse significative de la sécurité préexistante des moyens de subsistance et des services écosystémiques soutenant cette sécurité. Nos résultats suggèrent que les politiques imposant des transitions d'utilisation des terres aux agriculteurs des hautes terres afin d'améliorer les moyens de subsistance et les environnements ont été malavisées ; dans le contexte d'utilisations variées des terres, l'agriculture itinérante peut soutenir les moyens de subsistance et les services écosystémiques qui aideront à amortir les impacts du changement climatique en Asie du Sud-Est. El cambio económico global y las intervenciones políticas están impulsando las transiciones de los sistemas de golondrina larga (EPA) a usos alternativos de la tierra en las tierras altas del sudeste asiático. Este estudio presenta una revisión sistemática de cómo estas transiciones impactan en los medios de vida y los servicios ecosistémicos en la región. Más de 17 000 estudios publicados entre 1950 y 2015 se redujeron, en función de la relevancia y la calidad, a 93 estudios para su posterior análisis. Nuestro análisis de las transiciones del uso de la tierra de los sistemas de cultivo sucios a los intensificados mostró varios resultados: más hogares habían aumentado los ingresos generales, pero estos beneficios tuvieron un costo significativo, como la reducción de las prácticas consuetudinarias, el bienestar socioeconómico, las opciones de medios de vida y los rendimientos de los productos básicos. El examen de los efectos de las transiciones en las propiedades del suelo reveló impactos negativos en el carbono orgánico del suelo, la capacidad de intercambio catiónico y el carbono sobre el suelo. En conjunto, los impulsores inmediatos y subyacentes de las transiciones de la EPA a los usos alternativos de la tierra, especialmente la intensificación de los cultivos comerciales perennes y anuales, condujeron a disminuciones significativas en la seguridad de los medios de vida preexistentes y los servicios ecosistémicos que respaldan esta seguridad. Nuestros resultados sugieren que las políticas que imponen transiciones en el uso de la tierra a los agricultores de las tierras altas para mejorar los medios de vida y los entornos han sido erróneas; en el contexto de los diversos usos de la tierra, la agricultura sucia puede apoyar los medios de vida y los servicios ecosistémicos que ayudarán a amortiguar los impactos del cambio climático en el sudeste asiático. Global economic change and policy interventions are driving transitions from long-fallow swidden (LFS) systems to alternative land uses in Southeast Asia's uplands. This study presents a systematic review of how these transitions impact upon livelihoods and ecosystem services in the region. Over 17 000 studies published between 1950 and 2015 were narrowed, based on relevance and quality, to 93 studies for further analysis. Our analysis of land-use transitions from swidden to intensified cropping systems showed several outcomes: more households had increased overall income, but these benefits came at significant cost such as reductions of customary practice, socio-economic wellbeing, livelihood options, and staple yields. Examining the effects of transitions on soil properties revealed negative impacts on soil organic carbon, cation-exchange capacity, and aboveground carbon. Taken together, the proximate and underlying drivers of the transitions from LFS to alternative land uses, especially intensified perennial and annual cash cropping, led to significant declines in pre-existing livelihood security and the ecosystem services supporting this security. Our results suggest that policies imposing land-use transitions on upland farmers so as to improve livelihoods and environments have been misguided; in the context of varied land uses, swidden agriculture can support livelihoods and ecosystem services that will help buffer the impacts of climate change in Southeast Asia. يقود التغيير الاقتصادي العالمي والتدخلات السياسية التحولات من أنظمة الأرياف الطويلة (LFS) إلى استخدامات بديلة للأراضي في مرتفعات جنوب شرق آسيا. تقدم هذه الدراسة مراجعة منهجية لكيفية تأثير هذه التحولات على سبل العيش وخدمات النظم الإيكولوجية في المنطقة. تم تضييق نطاق أكثر من 17000 دراسة نُشرت بين عامي 1950 و 2015، بناءً على الملاءمة والجودة، إلى 93 دراسة لمزيد من التحليل. أظهر تحليلنا للتحولات في استخدام الأراضي من أنظمة زراعة المحاصيل إلى أنظمة زراعة المحاصيل المكثفة العديد من النتائج: فقد زادت المزيد من الأسر من الدخل الإجمالي، لكن هذه الفوائد جاءت بتكلفة كبيرة مثل الحد من الممارسة العرفية، والرفاهية الاجتماعية والاقتصادية، وخيارات سبل العيش، والمحاصيل الأساسية. كشفت دراسة آثار التحولات على خصائص التربة عن آثار سلبية على الكربون العضوي في التربة، وقدرة تبادل الكاتيون، والكربون فوق الأرض. مجتمعة، أدت الدوافع القريبة والأساسية للانتقال من LFS إلى الاستخدامات البديلة للأراضي، وخاصة المحاصيل النقدية الدائمة والسنوية المكثفة، إلى انخفاض كبير في أمن سبل العيش الموجود مسبقًا وخدمات النظام الإيكولوجي التي تدعم هذا الأمن. تشير نتائجنا إلى أن السياسات التي تفرض تحولات في استخدام الأراضي على مزارعي المرتفعات من أجل تحسين سبل العيش والبيئات قد تم تضليلها ؛ في سياق الاستخدامات المتنوعة للأراضي، يمكن للزراعة العشوائية أن تدعم سبل العيش وخدمات النظم الإيكولوجية التي ستساعد في الحد من آثار تغير المناخ في جنوب شرق آسيا.

The demand for biofuels has been rising, which has led developing countries to focus on production of feedstocks for biodiesel and bioethanol production. This has caused concerns for the impacts on food security, food prices and environmental sustainability. This paper examines a hypothetical case of cassava-based bioethanol production in southern Mali, assessing its environmental, economic and social sustainability. Results demonstrate that environmental sustainability of cassava-based bioethanol production depends on the ‘baseline’ chosen: Compared to the situation before the decline in cotton production 10 years ago, the carbon stocks will increase. However, if compared to the current situation, where considerable carbon stocks have accumulated in fallow fields, the loss of carbon will be substantial. Increased cassava production will create greater incomes and better temporal distribution of labour input. Analysis of the significance of current cassava production for food security shows that bioethano...

The need to mitigate climate change makes production of liquid biofuels a high priority. Substituting fossil fuels by biodiesel produced from Jatropha curcas has gained widespread attention as Jatropha cultivation is claimed to offer green house gas emission reductions. Farmers respond worldwide to this increasing demand by converting forests into Jatropha, but whether Jatropha-based biodiesel offers carbon savings depends on the carbon emissions that occur when land use is changed to Jatropha. This paper provides an impact assessment of a small-scale Jatropha project in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique. The paper outlines the estimated impacts on above and below-ground carbon stocks when land use is changed to increase Jatropha production. The results show that expansion of Jatropha production will most likely lead to the conversion of miombo forest areas to Jatropha, which implies a reduction in above and below-ground carbon stocks. The carbon debts created by the land use change can be repaid by replacing fossil fuels with Jatropha-based biodiesel. A repayment time of almost two centuries is found with optimistic estimates of the carbon debt, while the use of pessimistic values results in a repayment time that approaches the millennium. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The rapid expansion of modern food retail encapsulated in the so-called ‘supermarket revolution’ is often portrayed as a pivotal driving force in the modernization of agri-food systems in the Global South. Based on fieldwork conducted on horticulture value chains in West Java and South Sulawesi, this paper explores this phenomenon and the concerted efforts that government and corporate actors undertake with regard to agri-food value chain interventions and market modernization in Indonesia. The paper argues that after more than 15 years of ‘supermarket revolution’ in Indonesia, traditional food retail appears not to be in complete demise, but rather adaptive and resilient to its modern competitors. The analysis of local manifestations of supermarket-led agricultural development suggests that traditional markets can offer certain advantages for farmers over supermarket-driven value chains. The paper further identifies and discusses two areas that have so far been neglected by research and policymaking and which warrant further investigation: (i) the simultaneous transformations in traditional food value chains and their relation to modern markets, and (ii) the social and environmental performances of modern vis-à-vis traditional food value chains.

AbstractA continuous rise in the global demand for palm oil has resulted in the large‐scale expansion of oil palm plantations and generated environmental controversy. Efforts to increase the sustainability of oil palm cultivation include the recycling of oil mill and pruning residues in the field, but this may increase soil methane (CH4) emissions. This study reports the results of yearlong field‐based measurements of soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and CH4 emissions from commercial plantations in North Sumatra, Indonesia. One experiment investigated the effects of soil‐water saturation on N2O and CH4 emissions from inorganic fertilizers and organic amendments by simulating 25 mm rainfall per day for 21 days. Three additional experiments focused on emissions from (a) inorganic fertilizer (urea), (b) combination of enriched mulch with urea and (c) organic amendments (empty fruit bunches, enriched mulch and pruned oil palm fronds) applied in different doses and spatial layouts (placed in inter‐row zones, piles, patches or bands) for a full year. The higher dose of urea led to a significantly higher N2O emissions with the emission factors ranging from 2.4% to 2.7% in the long‐term experiment, which is considerably higher than the IPCC standard of 1%. Organic amendments were a significant source of both N2O and CH4 emissions, but N2O emissions from organic amendments were 66%–86% lower than those from inorganic fertilizers. Organic amendments applied in piles emitted 63% and 71% more N2O and CH4, respectively, than when spread out. With twice the dose of organic amendments, cumulative emissions were up to three times greater. The (simulated) rainwater experiment showed that the increase in precipitation led to a significant increase in N2O emissions significantly, suggesting that the time of fertilization is a critical management option for reducing emissions. The results from this study could therefore help guide residue and nutrient management practices to reduce emissions while ensuring better nutrient recycling for sustainable oil palm production systems.