• Energy Research

Abstract This article first analyses the situation of indicators related to renewable energies in the reference year (2005) used by the European Union (EU) for its goal of a 20% share of energy from renewable sources in the gross final consumption of energy in 2020. Nonlinear distribution of dynamic targets is suggested for increasing the energy from renewable sources in gross final consumption of energy. This methodology is then applied to European Union member countries, the NUTS0 territorial aggregation level according to the EUROSTAT Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), in the year 2020. Weighting was done based on share of energy from non-renewable sources in gross final consumption of energy, energy from non-renewable sources per capita, energy from non-renewable sources per GDP and GDP per capita in the EU-27 scenario. Finally, a multicriteria formula was applied to weight the variables used in this study.

AbstractSpain has one of the highest energy consumption rates per GDP in the European Union, and the construction industry is one of its main energy demands. The new Technical Building Code, partially transposed from the European Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings, has changed construction methods in an attempt at improving energy efficiency in buildings. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effects of changes in construction methods in Almeria (Spanish Climate Zone A4) in three different periods (1988-1994, 1995-2006 and 2007 to date). One of the main results was that it was observed that changes in the construction methods decreased primary energy consumption and overall CO2 emissions by about 50%, which is in agreement with the current European energy policy, which intends to improve energy efficiency by 20% by 2020.

Abstract The changes in Spanish legislation on energy efficiency seek to set the basis for achieving European energy and climate goals, especially insofar as decreasing primary energy consumption and reducing CO2 emissions. This has led to positive changes in energy in the building sector from traditional construction methods which did not consider energy efficiency (e.g., did not include envelope insulation). This study analyzed 342 residential buildings built from 1981 to 2015 and characterized their parameters (areas, orientation, number of stories, etc.), envelopes, domestic hot water, and heating and air-conditioning systems. Based on this characterization, a model single-family dwelling and another model multifamily dwelling were designed to evaluate their energy efficiency as a function of changes in construction and their cost in southeast Spain. The main results were that recently built buildings (built after 2006) have included domestic hot water from solar sources, insulating materials in their envelopes and have considerably improved construction systems, due to the requirements of current legislation. Fruit of these improvements is a drop in CO2 emissions of up to 82%, according to calculations done with official programmes. From an economic perspective, these changes have raised construction costs by 11% in multifamily dwellings and 17% in single-family dwellings.

Abstract The current European Union (EU) energy policy seeks to reach a balance between sustainable development, competitiveness and secure supply. In this sense, the EU energy policy sets the target of a 13% share of renewable energy sources (RESs) for Belgium. Several instruments have been implemented to reach this target. The objective of this study is analyzing those instruments and its effectiveness and efficiency. To tackle this objective, we first analyze the current status of RES in Flanders. Second, we compare the situation in Flanders to the national situation in Belgium and to the other EU member states. Then, we analyze the potential of each type of RES. Finally, we discuss the opportunities and problems of RES related to spatial planning. In Flanders, the main application of renewable energy is electricity production, of which the main source is biomass. An aspect of the Flemish energy policy worth mentioning is the green certificate system, which has stimulated the development of renewable energies. However, a greater effort to regulate this market and to decrease the cost of kWh produced has proven to be necessary. The RES-electricity share of total consumption has increased by 3.2% between 1994 and 2008. But, compared to others EU countries, the share of RES to gross inland consumption in Flanders is small. Large-scale facilities are necessary to reach the EU targets. The development of large wind, biomass and solar projects is suggested as the preferred option for Flanders.

AbstractThe EU energy policy sets an energy efficiency increase target of 20%, which is being implemented in the legislation of Member States in different ways. The greatest potential for energy savings of nearly 40% lies in buildings. The Spanish building sector has developed several instruments for significant savings. The purpose of this study is to analyze those instruments and their effectiveness and efficiency. In Spain, energy efficiency in buildings is improving more slowly than in other EU Member States, but the new regulation will open a new opportunity to recover the lost years. However, the current economic crisis, demotivation of its citizens, decentralization of power in energy matters and the large stock of housing for sale, impede achievement of energy efficiency goals

Abstract A 20% reduction in the consumption of energy is one of the main goals of the European Union’s (EU) 20/20/20 Energy Strategy. But the uniform application of this overall goal to all of the countries is neither fair nor equitable, as it does not take into consideration the characteristics of the energy system in each Member State. This article therefore proposes a nonlinear distribution methodology with objective, dynamic goals for reducing gross inland energy consumption, according to the context and characteristics of each member state. We hope it will open discussion on how these overall goals can be weighted. Then we analyse the situation of the energy indicators related to energy efficiency in the reference year (2005) used by the EU for reaching its goal of reducing the gross inland consumption by 20% by 2020, and its progress from 1996 to 2007. Finally, the methodology proposed is applied to the year 2020 on the NUTS0 territorial level, that is, to members of the EU, according to the EUROSTAT Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS). Weighting is done based on energy intensity, per capita gross inland consumption and per capita energy intensity in two scenarios, the EU-15 and EU-27.

Abstract A 20% reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2020 is one of the main objectives of the European Union (EU) energy policy. However, this overall objective does not specify how it should be distributed among the Member States, according to each one’s particular characteristics. Consequently, in this article a non-linear distribution methodology with dynamic objective targets for reducing GHG emissions is proposed. The goal of this methodology is to promote debate over the weighting of these overall objectives, according to the context and characteristics of each member state. First, an analysis is conducted of the situation of greenhouse gas emissions in the reference year (1990) used by the EU for reaching its goal of reducing them by 20% by 2020, and its progress from 1990 to 2007. Then, the methodology proposed was applied for the year 2020 on two territorial aggregation levels following the EUROSTAT Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), in the EU-15 and EU-27 member countries and on a regional level in 19 Spanish Autonomous Communities and Cities (NUTS-2). Weighting is done based on CO2 intensity, GHG emissions per capita and GHG emissions per GDP. Finally, several recommendations are provided for the formulation of energy policies.

Abstract The most important goal in the transport sector is reducing energy consumption and environmental emissions. Reducing emissions in this sector is fundamental for European Union (EU) countries to meet the Kyoto Protocol reduction targets (−8% in the EU15 by 2012) and comply with the EU energy policy (−20% by 2020). This paper focuses on global GHG emission reduction targets from these two agreements for the transport sector, specifically for CO2 emissions. First, we propose a non-linear methodology for distributing dynamic CO2 emission reduction targets based on an inverse logarithmic function. We applied the proposed distribution function for 2012 and 2020 at a European territorial level in the EU15, EU12 (new member states) and EU27 countries. The weighted distribution is based on the original per capita CO2 emissions, CO2 emissions per GDP, CO2 emissions per transport energy demand and carbon intensity in the transport sector. We then analysed CO2 emissions from the transport sector in the reference year (1990) and their evolution from 1990 to 2008. Finally, we show the weighted targets found for each EU member state, compare them to the actual achievements to date, and forecast the situation for the years the Kyoto and EU goals are to be met.

Greenhouse gas emission reduction is the pillar of the Kyoto Protocol and one of the main goals of the European Union (UE) energy policy. National reduction targets for EU member states and an overall target for the EU-15 (8%) were set by the Kyoto Protocol. This reduction target is based on emissions in the reference year (1990) and must be reached by 2012. EU energy policy does not set any national targets, only an overall reduction target of 20% by 2020. This paper transfers global greenhouse gas emission reduction targets in both these documents to the transport sector and specifically to CO2 emissions. It proposes a nonlinear distribution method with objective, dynamic targets for reducing CO2 emissions in the transport sector, according to the context and characteristics of each geographical area. First, we analyse CO2 emissions from transport in the reference year (1990) and their evolution from 1990 to 2007. We then propose a nonlinear methodology for distributing dynamic CO2 emission reduction targets. We have applied the proposed distribution function for 2012 and 2020 at two territorial levels (EU member states and Spanish autonomous regions). The weighted distribution is based on per capita CO2 emissions and CO2 emissions per gross domestic product. Finally, we show the weighted targets found for each EU member state and each Spanish autonomous region, compare them with the real achievements to date, and forecast the situation for the years the Kyoto and EU goals are to be met. The results underline the need for ?weighted? decentralised decisions to be made at different territorial levels with a view to achieving a common goal, so relative convergence of all the geographical areas is reached over time. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.