• Energy Research

Abstract Smart grids (SGs) have a central role in the development of the global power sector. Cost-benefit analyses and environmental impact assessments are used to support policy on the deployment of SG systems and technologies. However, the conflicting and widely varying estimates of costs, benefits, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction, and energy savings in literature leave policy makers struggling with how to advise regarding SG deployment. Identifying the causes for the wide variation of individual estimates in the literature is crucial if evaluations are to be used in decision-making. This paper (i) summarizes and compares the methodologies used for economic and environmental evaluation of SGs (ii) identifies the sources of variation in estimates across studies, and (iii) point to gap in research on economic and environmental analyses of SG systems. Seventeen studies (nine articles and eight reports published between 2000 and 2015) addressing the economic costs versus benefits, energy efficiency, and GHG emissions of SGs were systematically searched, located, selected, and reviewed. Their methods and data were subsequently extracted and analysed. The results show that no standardized method currently exists for assessing the economic and environmental impacts of SG systems. The costs varied between 0.03 and 1143 M€/yr, while the benefits ranged from 0.04 to 804 M€/yr, suggesting that SG systems do not result in cost savings The primary energy savings ranged from 0.03 to 0.95 MJ/kWh, whereas the GHG emission reduction ranged from 10 to 180 gCO2/kWh, depending on the country grid mix and the system boundary of the SG system considered. The findings demonstrate that although SG systems are energy efficient and reduce GHG emissions, investments in SG systems may not yield any benefits. Standardizing some methodologies and assumptions such as discount rates, time horizon and scrutinizing some key input data will result in more consistent estimates of costs and benefits, GHG emission reduction, and energy savings.

Abstract Smart grids (SGs) have a central role in the development of the global power sector. Cost-benefit analyses and environmental impact assessments are used to support policy on the deployment of SG systems and technologies. However, the conflicting and widely varying estimates of costs, benefits, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction, and energy savings in literature leave policy makers struggling with how to advise regarding SG deployment. Identifying the causes for the wide variation of individual estimates in the literature is crucial if evaluations are to be used in decision-making. This paper (i) summarizes and compares the methodologies used for economic and environmental evaluation of SGs (ii) identifies the sources of variation in estimates across studies, and (iii) point to gap in research on economic and environmental analyses of SG systems. Seventeen studies (nine articles and eight reports published between 2000 and 2015) addressing the economic costs versus benefits, energy efficiency, and GHG emissions of SGs were systematically searched, located, selected, and reviewed. Their methods and data were subsequently extracted and analysed. The results show that no standardized method currently exists for assessing the economic and environmental impacts of SG systems. The costs varied between 0.03 and 1143 M€/yr, while the benefits ranged from 0.04 to 804 M€/yr, suggesting that SG systems do not result in cost savings The primary energy savings ranged from 0.03 to 0.95 MJ/kWh, whereas the GHG emission reduction ranged from 10 to 180 gCO2/kWh, depending on the country grid mix and the system boundary of the SG system considered. The findings demonstrate that although SG systems are energy efficient and reduce GHG emissions, investments in SG systems may not yield any benefits. Standardizing some methodologies and assumptions such as discount rates, time horizon and scrutinizing some key input data will result in more consistent estimates of costs and benefits, GHG emission reduction, and energy savings.

This article investigates the applicability of combined Life Cycle Assessment and market analysis, to support efficiency evaluation of rural development strategies developed by the Apulian Rural Development Plan 2007�2013 (BURP n 93 26/05/2010). Measure 122 �Improving the economic value of forest� had the aim to improve of forestry farms technological resources addressing them toward the biomass production. As an example pellet production from sawmill residues (PSR) and firewood productions have been compared both under environmental and economic performances. The functional unit (FU) is 1 kWh of residential thermal energy. Environmental impacts of both fuels have been evaluated through the Life Cycle Assessment methodology, considering the most relevant impact categories: the damages on human health, the ecosystems qualities, the kg of CO2 eq. produced (GWP100) and the balance between energy requests and consumed (Cumulative Energy Demand � CED). About the economic analysis, data on pellet and firewood local market prices have been collected and consumer's expenditure for FU calculated. Results supplied relevant suggestions to improve efficiency and farmer's subscription to Apulia Regional Development Plan forestry measures.

This article investigates the applicability of combined Life Cycle Assessment and market analysis, to support efficiency evaluation of rural development strategies developed by the Apulian Rural Development Plan 2007�2013 (BURP n 93 26/05/2010). Measure 122 �Improving the economic value of forest� had the aim to improve of forestry farms technological resources addressing them toward the biomass production. As an example pellet production from sawmill residues (PSR) and firewood productions have been compared both under environmental and economic performances. The functional unit (FU) is 1 kWh of residential thermal energy. Environmental impacts of both fuels have been evaluated through the Life Cycle Assessment methodology, considering the most relevant impact categories: the damages on human health, the ecosystems qualities, the kg of CO2 eq. produced (GWP100) and the balance between energy requests and consumed (Cumulative Energy Demand � CED). About the economic analysis, data on pellet and firewood local market prices have been collected and consumer's expenditure for FU calculated. Results supplied relevant suggestions to improve efficiency and farmer's subscription to Apulia Regional Development Plan forestry measures.

Wastewater reuse provides valuable solutions to solve the societal challenges of decreasing availability and limiting access to secure water resources. The present study quantifies the environmental performance of nectarine orchards irrigation using treated municipal wastewater (TMW) and surface water using a unique dataset based on field experimental data. Climate change, toxicity (for human and freshwater), eutrophication (marine and freshwater) and acidification impacts were analysed using the impact assessment method suggested by the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD). The water footprint associated to the life cycles of each system has been estimated using the Available WAter REmaining (AWARE) method. Monte Carlo simulation was used to assess data uncertainty. The irrigation of nectarine orchards using TMW performs better than the irrigation using surface water for eutrophication impact categories. Compared with surface water resources, the potential impacts of TMW reuse in agriculture on climate change and toxicity are affected by the wastewater treatment phase (WWT). Only eutrophication and acidification burdens are generated by in-field substitution of surface water with TMW. Considering human and ecosystem water demand, the irrigation with TMW increases water consumption of 19.12 m3 per kg of nectarine produced. Whereas, it shows a positive contribution to water stress (-0.19 m3) if only human water demand is considered. This study provides important results that allow for a better understanding of the potential environmental consequences of TMW reuse in agriculture. It suggests that embracing the type of WWTs, the replacement of fertilizers, the effects on water scarcity and ecosystem quality might be useful to redefine water reuse regulations and increase public acceptance for the reuse of TMW in agriculture. Moreover, this study reveals the need for developing consensus and standardized guidance for life cycle analysis of water reuse applications.

Wastewater reuse provides valuable solutions to solve the societal challenges of decreasing availability and limiting access to secure water resources. The present study quantifies the environmental performance of nectarine orchards irrigation using treated municipal wastewater (TMW) and surface water using a unique dataset based on field experimental data. Climate change, toxicity (for human and freshwater), eutrophication (marine and freshwater) and acidification impacts were analysed using the impact assessment method suggested by the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD). The water footprint associated to the life cycles of each system has been estimated using the Available WAter REmaining (AWARE) method. Monte Carlo simulation was used to assess data uncertainty. The irrigation of nectarine orchards using TMW performs better than the irrigation using surface water for eutrophication impact categories. Compared with surface water resources, the potential impacts of TMW reuse in agriculture on climate change and toxicity are affected by the wastewater treatment phase (WWT). Only eutrophication and acidification burdens are generated by in-field substitution of surface water with TMW. Considering human and ecosystem water demand, the irrigation with TMW increases water consumption of 19.12 m3 per kg of nectarine produced. Whereas, it shows a positive contribution to water stress (-0.19 m3) if only human water demand is considered. This study provides important results that allow for a better understanding of the potential environmental consequences of TMW reuse in agriculture. It suggests that embracing the type of WWTs, the replacement of fertilizers, the effects on water scarcity and ecosystem quality might be useful to redefine water reuse regulations and increase public acceptance for the reuse of TMW in agriculture. Moreover, this study reveals the need for developing consensus and standardized guidance for life cycle analysis of water reuse applications.

Agricultural adaptation to climate change is indispensable. Unfortunately, most climate response modeling methods accounting for adaptation are based on economic modelling that assumes simple farm profit-maximization and autonomous farm adaptation. This makes adaptation look like something unconditional , explaining why agricultural policy down-sized the attention for adaptation. This is incorrect as adaptation is facing numerous barriers such as low levels of adaptive capacity. This paper therefore captures and quantifies the impact of adaptive capacity explicitly in economic cross-sectional models, showing that those methods can be more policy-oriented. It shows that higher levels of adaptive capacity lead to more positive climate responses. Acknowledgement : This paper was supported by the Horizon 2020 project SUFISA (Grant Agreement No. 635577).