• Energy Research
• 2021-2025close

Abstract Sustainable resource use can be approached from a service perspective, via ecosystem services, energy services or material services. In this paper, we propose an overarching conceptual framework, with which to combine all three service theories and practices. To do this, we review and adapt Potschin and Haines-Young's ecosystem service cascade to create a “resource service cascade” and a classification system. By focusing on a resource's function in society rather than its source, we offer an alternative conceptualisation of the tangible aspects of what an ecosystem and socioeconomic system can provide human populations. We rework various definitions to overcome some of the challenges that emerge when accounting for either natural processes or socioeconomic processes but never both simultaneously. To demonstrate how the resource service cascade works conceptually, we highlight the contributions of resources when used in an illumination system/structure through to visual comfort (the service), need satisfiers and some tangible aspects of wellbeing. Future research, in the form of case studies, is required to operationalise the resource service cascade so that its usefulness can be empirically tested.

Abstract Energy and materials support food production, maintain and expand material stocks (e.g. buildings and roads) and provide services. In this paper, an exergy-based approach is used to provide an integrated perspective on the evolution of societal resource flows and stocks. The scope of this analysis is from resource extraction (primary exergy stage) to end uses such as low temperature heating and illumination (useful exergy stage). From 1900 to 2010, global exergy consumption at the primary stage increased from 115 to 903 EJ/year, of which 88–89% corresponded to energy flows, including food and feed. Useful exergy flows increased from 9 to 148 EJ/year, of which 47%, in 2010, was contained within material goods. Primary to useful efficiency doubled from 8% in 1900 to 16% in 2010. However, this improvement is far from that which is required to achieve climate targets for 2060. The amount of resource flows required per unit of economic activity decreased at both the primary (from 58.5 to 17.0 GJ/$) and useful (from 4.7 to 2.8 GJ/$) exergy stages, indicating relative decoupling. The exergy in stocks went from 91 to 820 EJ. Stock intensity reduced from 46.2 to 15.5 GJ/$-year−1 due to a shift in stock composition rather than dematerialisation in mass terms. Future research needs to identify the relationships between resource flow intensity and stock intensity in order to meet sustainability targets, including those linked to future resource demand. The scope could be expanded to include additional resources such as water and rare earth metals.

Abstract The transport sector is supported by the continuous provision of energy and material flows and material stocks. However, most resource accounting methods do not assess the role of material accumulation in the delivery of mobility, as a service. Using a UK-based case study, we evaluate the service contribution of both resource stocks and flows in the provision of the passenger-kilometres (pkm) travelled nationally by UK-registered cars between 1960 and 2015. For flows we considered diesel and petrol. For stocks we considered steel, aluminium, and plastics, among others. We used six indicators to analyse the interactions between stocks, flows and service. Our results show that the fuel efficiency of cars increased from 0.46 to 0.69 pkm/MJ over the period. However, there was a decrease in stock efficiency from 24.9 to 17.1 pkm/kg-year. Resource productivity increased from 0.42 to 0.61 pkm/MJ. Stock expansion rate decreased from 0.16 to 0.03 year−1 while the specific CO2 embodied impact reduced from 2.4 to 2.0 tCO2/tonne of resource flow. Consumer preferences for heavier larger vehicles and sociodemographic changes linked to workplace expectations, commuting and urbanisation patterns are key factors influencing UK car stock efficiency. While fuel efficiency has improved and will continue to do so via the mass adoption of electric vehicles, due to policy and legislative developments, there are still sustainability concerns linked to their heavier weight and the environmental impact of their increased material complexity.