• Energy Research

The energy crisis is affecting a number of countries, but particularly those that are heavily dependent on the traditional energy generation formula (e.g., Poland), as well as those neighbouring the territory of the ongoing war in Ukraine, i.e., Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. With this in mind, the authors of this study decided to explore the issue of water energy as a source of green (cheap and environmentally safe) energy in these countries. The main objective of the paper is to review the available literature, which is needed to identify the role hydropower plays in energy security and energy transition in these energy markets. This paper is based on a review and critical appraisal of the available literature and studies together with an inference. The structure of the paper consists of an introduction, the main part of the review and conclusions. The geopolitical location and socio-economic conditions of the adopted set of countries, form the basis of the review of the existing literature on the theme explored and the substantive inference. The main findings of this review indicate that the literature is most strongly focused on the overall assessment of the energy transition of the adopted countries for review, where the hydropower thread is most often taken up as one source of renewable energy supply. Hydropower, due to its relatively low share in the energy systems of the adopted set of countries, is, according to the authors, insufficiently explored. The most significant gap relates to the aspect of the potential for hydropower development in these areas, considering both the construction of new hydropower plants and opportunities signalled in the literature for the modernisation or restoration of existing ones. In this respect, the need for analyses (studies and simulations) of hydropower development, considering the economic benefits associated with their development juxtaposed with the safety dimension of this course of action for the environment (analysis and assessment of environmental costs) is indicated, which is the main recommendation of the review.

Energy transformation in the European Union countries is progressing. Its scope is defined by formal and legal regulations and its effectiveness by the position of decision-makers, legitimised by public support for a particular type of challenge. Both issues are the focus of this article. The promotion of environmental protection measures is currently strongly promoted globally. Hence the widespread acceptance in principle of the changes associated with the implementing of the Green New Deal in the energy sector is not surprising. However, to what extent is knowledge of the solutions constituting the mainstream transition (renewable energy sources) ingrained among communities? Does the level of public awareness influence individual consumer choices, modelling the market? The threads outlined above inspired deliberations focused on analysing the assumptions behind energy transition in the EU, with particular reference to the countries directly bordering the line of the ongoing conflict in Ukraine (Poland, Lithuania), in the light of the resulting and escalating restrictions exacerbating the energy crisis. The immediate neighbourhood of the adopted countries, and their similar socio-economic conditions, provided the basis for comparisons and conclusions. The motivation for the choice of the issue and research area was to fill the clear information gap in this study area, strictly in relation to the adopted configuration of these countries. The research proceedings in the outlined area were primarily based on the methodology appropriate for capture and analysis of economic phenomena, enriched with the results of our own findings (questionnaire survey regarding general knowledge of the ZE market and consumer preferences), in order to assess the economic and environmental dimensions of energy transition in Poland and Lithuania and to assess the level of public awareness in this respect in the countries under study. The presented research is an important complementary element of the authors’ series of studies devoted to the analysis of the development of the renewable energy market in Poland and the Baltic States, related to the individual dimensions of RES. Their results give rise to the conclusion that increased social awareness in these countries determines the popularisation of RES solutions in individual use, regardless of their type, stimulating the progress of the energy transformation process.

Biogas production is a process with great potential. It uses the biodegradable raw materials of animal, vegetable and municipal waste. The amount of municipal as well as agricultural waste is increasing every year. This waste is an unmanaged and nuisance waste, and using it in biogas plants reduces the amount of waste. Biogas production is part of the EU’s policy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and use energy from renewable sources (diversification of energy sources). Its importance is certain to increase in the future as energy demand increases. This article deals with the economical use of biodegradable waste for biogas production in Poland and Germany. Both countries have a similar agricultural and municipal waste structure. An agricultural biogas plant is one way of obtaining energy based on renewable energy sources (RES). Energy production from agricultural biogas will allow Poland to meet the 32% obligation imposed by the EU and Germany to continue to be the market leader in biogas plants. The biogas market in Poland is growing, while in Germany, there is a decline in biogas installations. The article indicates what changes need to take place in agriculture and the use of municipal waste in these countries to sustain the development of biogas plants. Both countries should maintain animal husbandry to ensure continuous access to substrate and use waste for production rather than growing maize or other mixtures only for biogas plants. Due to the high price of chemical fertilisers, pulp from biogas plants should be an alternative to chemical fertilisers in both countries, which will contribute to greener crops. The governments of both countries should support such measures.

The economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic reinforces the problem of rising electricity prices, which mainly affects countries that are forced to pay ever-higher CO₂ emission allowance fees (e.g., Poland). In the light of signals confirming the need for intensive development of the wind energy market in the Baltic Sea region, the authors consider the need to examine this issue concerning Poland and the Baltic States (i.e., Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) as extremely important and demanding. The development of the RES market is currently an absolute necessity. The immediate neighbourhood and similar general social and economic conditions of Poland and the Baltic States enable factual comparisons, reinforcing the rationale for choosing the adopted research area. The main objective of the study was to assess the development of the wind energy market in Poland in the background of the Baltic Sea bordering countries in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to try to answer the question: what direction of wind energy development in Poland in the realities of the COVID-19 pandemic is justified and may have an impact on limiting the increase in electricity prices in this country? In this context, it turned out to be particularly interesting to identify solutions practised in the wind energy market in the Baltic States with their potential to be applied in Poland. The research instruments were drawn from an economic analysis and evaluation of phenomena and supported by the results of our own research (questionnaire) conducted on the Polish energy market, to substantiate the findings.

The problem of rising energy prices stems from the weakening of economies operating in the realities of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic, as well as from the rising cost of CO2 emission allowances in connection with the European Union’s environmental policy. The outbreak of war in Ukraine has deepened the energy crisis in European countries, which, to a significant extent, benefit from hydrocarbon resources imported from Russia. This problem is particularly acute in countries that are heavily dependent on conventional forms of energy production (e.g., Poland). In light of the problems observed, the need to develop a market for renewable energy has become more urgent than ever. Although this problem affects a number of countries, the authors of the study decided that it is particularly important in the region of the countries neighbouring the line of the ongoing armed conflict in Ukraine, i.e., Poland and the Baltic States (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia). The choice of the research area was determined by direct proximity to the examined countries, as well as the generally comparable social and economic conditions of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, which creates the basis for factual comparisons and conclusions. The main objective of the study was to assess the directions of the development of the geothermal energy market in Poland against the background of the Baltic States in the current economic conditions, together with an attempt to determine the most justified direction of geothermal energy development in Poland—with the strongest impact on increasing the share of RES in the energy system and limiting the increase in electricity prices in this country. Identification of solutions practiced in the geothermal energy market in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia for comparative purposes (Poland region) was helpful in this respect. The subject of this study was oriented towards the diagnosis of the state of the geothermal energy market in the surveyed countries to determine the general directions of its development. Particular attention was paid to the study of needs and preferences in this field on the Polish market concerning individual users, which constitutes the basis of the research. The instruments required for carrying out the research work in the outlined scope were basically drawn from the area of economic analysis and evaluation of phenomena (multifaceted analysis including critical analysis of the literature, comparative analysis of research results, situational analysis of geothermal market), in comparison with the results of our own research (questionnaire survey) carried out on the Polish energy market (individual customers). The research revealed the strong position of Poland in the field of the development of deep and shallow geothermal energy in the area of the countries accepted for the study. The determinant of the above is the abundance in this country of easily accessible heat deposits of the Earth. In general, the actions taken by the surveyed countries in the field of geothermal development are of a similar nature (shallow geothermal heat pumps are the most developed), while, in the field of deep geothermal energy, an interesting observation is the orientation towards solutions based on the energy of crystalline rocks in Lithuania and Estonia, determined by the availability of such deposits in this region. Surveys indicate the growing awareness of the validity of efforts to extract energy from the earth. However, this problem still represents a major challenge (e.g., deep geothermal energy in Estonia), so indicating the role of geothermal energy in the energy market—especially in the area of the countries accepted for the survey—is an important and relevant topic.

The household, industrial, and service sectors in Poland and the Baltic States have been facing ever-higher bills for their electricity consumption at a time when a number of them have been hit hard financially by the pandemic. Rising inflation, the border crisis—with its set of restrictions, or the spread of the fourth wave of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic, is causing strong concerns in the social and economic sphere, with significant increases in electricity prices. Many countries are implementing measures to reduce the adverse effects of rising electricity prices in response to this complex situation. The main orientation is towards obtaining energy from renewable sources, such as the sun. The current situation in the energy market determines the price per 1 KW. Among the countries under study, the price of electricity has increased the most in Poland. On the other hand, the development of the photovoltaic segment in Poland is undergoing a strong, upward trend. The above inspired the authors to explore the energy market situation in Poland and the Baltic States in the current economic conditions, along with an analysis of its development potential in light of the coronavirus pandemic. The main research problem of this study is an attempt to answer the question of what should be changed in the development of the renewable energy market in Poland, with particular emphasis on photovoltaics, to accelerate the process of reducing CO2 emissions, leading to a reduction in dramatically rising electricity prices. Which solutions implemented in the Baltic countries can inspire strengthening Poland’s energy market development?