• Energy Research

In 2022, energy prices rose markedly across Europe, impacting household budgets and everyday energy practices and providing an interesting backdrop for research on energy vulnerability. While such research is an established field throughout many European countries, there is limited research within the Nordic countries. In Denmark, the energy crisis during the winter of 2022/2023 led to increased political attention on new topics relating to vulnerable households and energy security. In this paper, we use the recent energy crisis to elucidate the complex links of energy vulnerability in Denmark through rich qualitative and quantitative material. Using data from a survey questionnaire and household interviews conducted during Winter 2022/2023, we identified that feelings of high financial stress and not being able to afford to maintain comfort standards any longer are indications of energy vulnerability and that this is more prevalent in low-income households and for younger Danes (<40y), families with one or more children, and tenants. Moreover, through four case stories, the paper illustrates how Danish households experience energy vulnerability in everyday life and how they cope with constraints in their energy use and respond to the challenges of rising energy prices. The paper contributes to the existing literature by presenting experiences of energy vulnerability in a Nordic welfare context and by identifying variation in experiences across household groups, which highlights the complexity of energy vulnerability. Despite high levels of energy efficiency, (relatively) affordable energy costs, and social welfare, energy vulnerability is present in Denmark, not least when energy prices increase rapidly.

In 2022, energy prices rose markedly across Europe, impacting household budgets and everyday energy practices and providing an interesting backdrop for research on energy vulnerability. While such research is an established field throughout many European countries, there is limited research within the Nordic countries. In Denmark, the energy crisis during the winter of 2022/2023 led to increased political attention on new topics relating to vulnerable households and energy security. In this paper, we use the recent energy crisis to elucidate the complex links of energy vulnerability in Denmark through rich qualitative and quantitative material. Using data from a survey questionnaire and household interviews conducted during Winter 2022/2023, we identified that feelings of high financial stress and not being able to afford to maintain comfort standards any longer are indications of energy vulnerability and that this is more prevalent in low-income households and for younger Danes (<40y), families with one or more children, and tenants. Moreover, through four case stories, the paper illustrates how Danish households experience energy vulnerability in everyday life and how they cope with constraints in their energy use and respond to the challenges of rising energy prices. The paper contributes to the existing literature by presenting experiences of energy vulnerability in a Nordic welfare context and by identifying variation in experiences across household groups, which highlights the complexity of energy vulnerability. Despite high levels of energy efficiency, (relatively) affordable energy costs, and social welfare, energy vulnerability is present in Denmark, not least when energy prices increase rapidly.

Energy labels have generally received positive response from consumers and have moved the market for white goods and cars in the direction of more energy-efficient products. On the real estate market, it was expected that an energy label, rating the energy performance of a property based on a national energy performance certificate (EPC) might receive similar response. However, in Denmark no response to the energy performance rating was observed for 15 years. This was a surprise considering that Denmark was the first country to implement an A to G rating of the energy performance of buildings. A statistical examination of data on property sales prices and energy performance ratings was carried out. All relevant property transaction data from 2007 till 2012 were examined and they showed that energy performance ratings had an impact on property sales prices. However, before June 2010, the impact was modest, whereas after June 2010 the impact of energy performance ratings on property sales prices increased significantly as a result of an EU requirement to display the energy performance rating in connection with property sales. On this background, it was concluded that a public display of the energy performance rating is fundamental for market response.

Energy labels have generally received positive response from consumers and have moved the market for white goods and cars in the direction of more energy-efficient products. On the real estate market, it was expected that an energy label, rating the energy performance of a property based on a national energy performance certificate (EPC) might receive similar response. However, in Denmark no response to the energy performance rating was observed for 15 years. This was a surprise considering that Denmark was the first country to implement an A to G rating of the energy performance of buildings. A statistical examination of data on property sales prices and energy performance ratings was carried out. All relevant property transaction data from 2007 till 2012 were examined and they showed that energy performance ratings had an impact on property sales prices. However, before June 2010, the impact was modest, whereas after June 2010 the impact of energy performance ratings on property sales prices increased significantly as a result of an EU requirement to display the energy performance rating in connection with property sales. On this background, it was concluded that a public display of the energy performance rating is fundamental for market response.

Understanding the conventions of homely comfort is important to accommodate occupants’ expectations and needs in relation to a comfortable indoor environment (temperature, daylight, noise, and indoor air quality) in a society that needs to make serious reductions in energy consumption in accordance with the global climate agenda. Previous socio-technical research has focused on how conventions and expectations of thermal comfort are constructed over time. However, little is known about how such conventions and expectations vary across social groups. This paper uses survey data to explore social differences in conventions and the expectations of homely comfort. It does so by examining differences in how important occupants find various aspects of homely comfort that relate to the indoor environment (temperature, daylight, noise, and fresh air). The paper presents three main findings. First, it shows how the importance of different aspects of homely comfort relate to each other and indicates an underlying factor of importance of homely comfort. Second, the results indicate that women and older occupants tend to consider homely comfort to be more important than others do, whereas occupants with a high school or bachelor's degree tend to consider homely comfort to be less important. This suggests that expectations of residential comfort vary according to social group differences. Third, the results indicate that how important occupants find homely comfort is associated with higher levels of energy used for space heating. This suggests that everyday practices related to home heating are organised according to differences in how important occupants consider different aspects of homely comfort. Finally, how a better understanding of the social structures of evaluating comfort can be incorporated into policy for a sustainable future is discussed.

Understanding the conventions of homely comfort is important to accommodate occupants’ expectations and needs in relation to a comfortable indoor environment (temperature, daylight, noise, and indoor air quality) in a society that needs to make serious reductions in energy consumption in accordance with the global climate agenda. Previous socio-technical research has focused on how conventions and expectations of thermal comfort are constructed over time. However, little is known about how such conventions and expectations vary across social groups. This paper uses survey data to explore social differences in conventions and the expectations of homely comfort. It does so by examining differences in how important occupants find various aspects of homely comfort that relate to the indoor environment (temperature, daylight, noise, and fresh air). The paper presents three main findings. First, it shows how the importance of different aspects of homely comfort relate to each other and indicates an underlying factor of importance of homely comfort. Second, the results indicate that women and older occupants tend to consider homely comfort to be more important than others do, whereas occupants with a high school or bachelor's degree tend to consider homely comfort to be less important. This suggests that expectations of residential comfort vary according to social group differences. Third, the results indicate that how important occupants find homely comfort is associated with higher levels of energy used for space heating. This suggests that everyday practices related to home heating are organised according to differences in how important occupants consider different aspects of homely comfort. Finally, how a better understanding of the social structures of evaluating comfort can be incorporated into policy for a sustainable future is discussed.

The role of households in relation to heat and energy consumption has been well-described in both quantitative and qualitative studies. However, where practice theory has developed as the main theoretical framework within qualitative studies on energy consumption, the more recent quantitative studies do not interpret the results within a sociological theoretical context. Consequently, the two approaches are not contributing their respective insights on how to understand energy consumption.In this paper, the methodology of the quantitative studies is combined with the theoretical perspectives of the qualitative studies, emphasising how energy consumption is a result of energy-consuming practices. Focusing on heat consumption used for space heating and heating of water in single-family detached houses in Denmark, it is found that sociocultural differences between households such as income, education, occupation, and immigration status influence the amount of heat consumed by a household; directly as an indicator of household practices and indirectly through type of building and household characteristics. New interpretations based on theories of practice show that factors such as the social structure of heat consumption, status of houses and unreflective practices are important for understanding the role of households in relation to heat consumption, and for forming policies for sustainable development.