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Coastal communities in Pacific Island Countries are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts including sea-level rise, coastal erosion, tidal inundation, and the intensification of storm surge activity. In response, adaptation projects across the region have attempted to reduce exposure and overall vulnerability to these coastal pressures. This paper explores what happens once these projects reach communities: are effective and sustainable outcomes achieved, or can the implementation of adaptation projects lead to unintended negative outcomes and result in maladaptation? This paper investigates this issue in relation to two seawall projects implemented in communities on Vanua Levu Island, Fiji. We found that the seawalls have not been successful in achieving their primary aim of safeguarding communities against coastal pressures and have instead resulted in unanticipated negative outcomes for land and livelihood security. Of primary concern is the way that seawalls trap water along their landward sides—acting more like a dam—because of the ineffective design and construction of the seawalls and associated infrastructure. This paper concludes with a call to think more long-term about site-specific adaptation measures that actively involve and are driven by local perspectives in the planning, implementation, and maintenance process.

Coastal communities in Pacific Island Countries are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts including sea-level rise, coastal erosion, tidal inundation, and the intensification of storm surge activity. In response, adaptation projects across the region have attempted to reduce exposure and overall vulnerability to these coastal pressures. This paper explores what happens once these projects reach communities: are effective and sustainable outcomes achieved, or can the implementation of adaptation projects lead to unintended negative outcomes and result in maladaptation? This paper investigates this issue in relation to two seawall projects implemented in communities on Vanua Levu Island, Fiji. We found that the seawalls have not been successful in achieving their primary aim of safeguarding communities against coastal pressures and have instead resulted in unanticipated negative outcomes for land and livelihood security. Of primary concern is the way that seawalls trap water along their landward sides—acting more like a dam—because of the ineffective design and construction of the seawalls and associated infrastructure. This paper concludes with a call to think more long-term about site-specific adaptation measures that actively involve and are driven by local perspectives in the planning, implementation, and maintenance process.

Historically coral reefs of Bahrain were among the most extensive in the southern basin of the Arabian Gulf. However, Bahrain's reefs have undergone significant decline in the last four decades as a result of large-scale coastal development and elevated sea surface temperature events. Here we quantitatively surveyed six sites including most major coral reef habitats around Bahrain and a reef located 72 km offshore. Fleshy and turf algae now dominate Bahrain's reefs (mean: 72% cover), and live coral cover is low (mean: 5.1%). Formerly dominant Acropora were not observed at any site. The offshore Bulthama reef had the highest coral cover (16.3%) and species richness (22 of the 23 species observed, 13 of which were exclusive to this site). All reefs for which recent and historical data are available show continued degradation, and it is unlikely that they will recover under continuing coastal development and projected climate change impacts.

Historically coral reefs of Bahrain were among the most extensive in the southern basin of the Arabian Gulf. However, Bahrain's reefs have undergone significant decline in the last four decades as a result of large-scale coastal development and elevated sea surface temperature events. Here we quantitatively surveyed six sites including most major coral reef habitats around Bahrain and a reef located 72 km offshore. Fleshy and turf algae now dominate Bahrain's reefs (mean: 72% cover), and live coral cover is low (mean: 5.1%). Formerly dominant Acropora were not observed at any site. The offshore Bulthama reef had the highest coral cover (16.3%) and species richness (22 of the 23 species observed, 13 of which were exclusive to this site). All reefs for which recent and historical data are available show continued degradation, and it is unlikely that they will recover under continuing coastal development and projected climate change impacts.

The phytoplankton community in the Changjiang Estuary is subject to intensive physical and chemical stresses because of human- and climate-driven changes. We obtained historical data on summer phytoplankton communities from 1959 to 2009 to explore responses to long-term environmental changes. The nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations and ratios (N/P and N/Si) increased because of persistent riverine loading, but silicon (Si) levels remained constant. Climatic changes and extensive water diversions and withdrawals (sediment retention) resulted in a series of physical alterations, including increased temperature, turbidity reduction, and river plume shrinkage. These changes induced a dramatic increase in microalgal biomass (cell density and chlorophyll a) with a decreasing diatom-dinoflagellate ratio, and exacerbated harmful algal blooms. In the past dominant net-collected species were usually chain-forming diatoms; however, more recently, large dinoflagellates and filamentous cyanobacteria dominate. This was not consistent with information from water samples (co-dominated by small dinoflagellates), because of the loss of solitary species collected using a 76-μm net. The dominant species shifted from temperate-subtropical/eurythermal to subtropical-tropical/eurythermal taxa in the warmer water caused by global warming and hydrographic changes. There was also an increased dominance of euryhaline/high-salinity species due to increase in Kuroshio transport and the northward Taiwan Warm Current and reduction in Changjiang Diluted Water. All these changes in phytoplankton communities appear to be closely related to an increase in anthropogenic activities and climatic changes.

The phytoplankton community in the Changjiang Estuary is subject to intensive physical and chemical stresses because of human- and climate-driven changes. We obtained historical data on summer phytoplankton communities from 1959 to 2009 to explore responses to long-term environmental changes. The nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations and ratios (N/P and N/Si) increased because of persistent riverine loading, but silicon (Si) levels remained constant. Climatic changes and extensive water diversions and withdrawals (sediment retention) resulted in a series of physical alterations, including increased temperature, turbidity reduction, and river plume shrinkage. These changes induced a dramatic increase in microalgal biomass (cell density and chlorophyll a) with a decreasing diatom-dinoflagellate ratio, and exacerbated harmful algal blooms. In the past dominant net-collected species were usually chain-forming diatoms; however, more recently, large dinoflagellates and filamentous cyanobacteria dominate. This was not consistent with information from water samples (co-dominated by small dinoflagellates), because of the loss of solitary species collected using a 76-μm net. The dominant species shifted from temperate-subtropical/eurythermal to subtropical-tropical/eurythermal taxa in the warmer water caused by global warming and hydrographic changes. There was also an increased dominance of euryhaline/high-salinity species due to increase in Kuroshio transport and the northward Taiwan Warm Current and reduction in Changjiang Diluted Water. All these changes in phytoplankton communities appear to be closely related to an increase in anthropogenic activities and climatic changes.

Italy is the most important European country in terms of paddy rice production. North Italian districts such as Vercelli, Pavia, Novara, and Milano are known as some of the world's most advanced rice cultivation sites. In 2013 Italian rice cultivation represented about 50% of all European rice production by area, and paddy fields extended for over 216,000 ha. Cultivation of rice involves different agricultural activities which have environmental impacts mainly due to fossil fuels and agrochemical requirements as well as the methane emission associated with the fermentation of organic material in the flooded rice fields. In order to assess the environmental consequences of rice production in the District of Vercelli, the cultivation practices most frequently carried out were inventoried and evaluated. The general approach of this study was not only to gather the inventory data for rice production and quantify their environmental impacts, but also to identify the key environmental factors where special attention must be paid. Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied in this study from a cradle-to-farm gate perspective. The environmental profile was analyzed in terms of seven different impact categories: climate change, ozone depletion, human toxicity, terrestrial acidification, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, and fossil depletion. Regarding straw management, two different scenarios (burial into the soil of the straw versus harvesting) were compared. The analysis showed that the environmental impact was mainly due to field emissions, the fuel consumption needed for the mechanization of field operations, and the drying of the paddy rice. The comparison between the two scenarios highlighted that the collection of the straw improves the environmental performance of rice production except that for freshwater eutrophication. To improve the environmental performance of rice production, solutions to save fossil fuel and reduce the emissions from fertilizers (leaching, volatilization) as well as methane emissions should be implemented.

Italy is the most important European country in terms of paddy rice production. North Italian districts such as Vercelli, Pavia, Novara, and Milano are known as some of the world's most advanced rice cultivation sites. In 2013 Italian rice cultivation represented about 50% of all European rice production by area, and paddy fields extended for over 216,000 ha. Cultivation of rice involves different agricultural activities which have environmental impacts mainly due to fossil fuels and agrochemical requirements as well as the methane emission associated with the fermentation of organic material in the flooded rice fields. In order to assess the environmental consequences of rice production in the District of Vercelli, the cultivation practices most frequently carried out were inventoried and evaluated. The general approach of this study was not only to gather the inventory data for rice production and quantify their environmental impacts, but also to identify the key environmental factors where special attention must be paid. Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied in this study from a cradle-to-farm gate perspective. The environmental profile was analyzed in terms of seven different impact categories: climate change, ozone depletion, human toxicity, terrestrial acidification, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, and fossil depletion. Regarding straw management, two different scenarios (burial into the soil of the straw versus harvesting) were compared. The analysis showed that the environmental impact was mainly due to field emissions, the fuel consumption needed for the mechanization of field operations, and the drying of the paddy rice. The comparison between the two scenarios highlighted that the collection of the straw improves the environmental performance of rice production except that for freshwater eutrophication. To improve the environmental performance of rice production, solutions to save fossil fuel and reduce the emissions from fertilizers (leaching, volatilization) as well as methane emissions should be implemented.