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Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are a key component of the Internet of Things (IoT) revolution. WSN nodes are in general battery-powered, thereby and efficient usage of their energy budget is of paramount importance to avoid performance degradation in IoT applications. To this end, this chapter proposes techniques to manage the WSN nodes’ power consumption. The aim of the first technique is to minimize the transmitted power for a given quality of service requirement at the receiver side. To this end, a power control is considered at each WSN node as well as the use of multiple distributed access points at the receiver side. The second technique to reduce the WSN energy consumption is energy harvesting (EH). Namely, the use of artificial light EH is considered to extend the WSN lifetime. Thus, an experimental setup based on a photovoltaic cell, a boost converter and a commercial WSN node is presented. It is shown that under certain settings it is possible to extend the WSN node’s lifetime without bound, when the transmission time period is above a certain threshold.

The objective of this study is to determine analytically the actual potential of large-scale biomass-based electricity production technologies in the mid-term future in a large geographical area.A case study over a ten-year period was carried out for the United States state-by-state analysing potentials of commercial large power generation using fluidised bed technology.The time period is chosen to be consistent with the commitments of the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions.Technologies considered are (1) cofiring (CF) of biomass in existing coal fired power plants, (2) a new fluidised bed boiler for cofiring, (3) conversion of an existing boiler to fluidised bed combustion (FBC) and (4) an atmospheric biomass gasifier connected to existing boiler. All the concepts have been demonstrated and are in the commercial operation in Europe but their poor competitiveness has prevented a significant market penetration to date in the United States.Additionally, a novel concept of integra ting a flash pyrolysis unit to a fluidised bed boiler is evaluated.Cogeneration is also included in the study.Mill residues and municipal wood waste from construction, demolition and yard trimmings are the most low-cost fuels and they could generate in cofiring the electricity production capacity of 2000 MW and 8000 MW respectively.Agricultural and logging residues have large potential of 19000 MW and 6000 MW, but their costs are not so competitive.Dedicated energy crops and residues from silvicultural operations could manifold available resources in the future.Cofiring is the lowest-cost alternative for utilities to start use of biomass.Tax credits for cofiring during five years would make use of biomass in coal-fired boilers competitive 2000 MW with 0.5-cent/kWh-tax credit and 6000 MW with 1.0 cent/kWh.The willingness to invest is estimated to be small without obligations or high tax credits, because risks are large compared to benefits.FBC technologies are feasible if low-cost, low - quality fuels are available, SO2 or NOx emissions have been reduced, or boilers need repowering.A tax credit of 1.5 cent/kWh for 10 years would crate economic prerequisites for 8000 MW of atmospheric gasifiers and FBC boilers.Renewable portfolio standard (RPS) with a price level of 25 USD/MWh of renewable energy would create possibilities for the generation of 8000 MW by biomass, and with price level of 40 USD/MWh over 30 000 MW, and the probability of investments is estimated to be high.Possibility to increase cogeneration with very high over-all efficiencies in the forest industry is about 5000 MW, but special incentives for cogeneration would be needed.Tax credits could create active fuel markets for biomass and reliability of concepts could be tested, and learning curves would reduce investment costs.RPS-type of incentives would ensure the increase of renewable energy with a certain amount very effectively because operators are free to choose the most cost-effective measures for th em.Increase of the biomass-based electricity production could be 5% of the electricity demand and reduce 3% of CO2 emissions by 2010 based on low-cost biomass residues.

This timely book critically examines the role played by international, regional and national legal frameworks in holding corporations operating in the natural resource sector accountable for human rights violations in the Global South, probing the effectiveness of the mechanisms available to aggrieved communities in pursuit of effective remedies and socio-ecological justice. The book brings together influential scholars from across the world addressing topical and relevant themes concerning the integration of business & human rights standards for better governance of natural resources and the transition towards net zero societies, especially in the context of extractive and multinational companies operating in the Global South. It also considers the application and implementation of transnational and domestic legal remedies for holding corporations accountable with references to case studies in natural resources governance in selected countries and regions, in particular Africa, Asia and Latin America. The book reviews proposals for an enforceable legal framework on the liability of corporations for human rights abuses and environmental damage, taking account of the existing initiatives such as the OECD Guidelines on Multinational Enterprises, the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, UN’s Draft Business & Human Rights Treaty and the European Commission’s 2022 proposal for a Directive on Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence. The book is essential reading for academics and students working or researching in the fields of business law, human rights and natural resources law; as well as corporate and human rights lawyers and practitioners litigating in the energy and natural resources sectors.