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The spontaneous combustion of coals is a natural phenomenon that causes serious losses in the mining sector as well as environmental problems as a result of greenhouse gases released during spontaneous combustion of coal. In this study, for the first time, the effect of coal reactor size on the spontaneous combustion tendency parameters (crossing point temperature (CPT), average heating rate (AHR), and liability index (IFCC)) of the coal samples having two different ranks (bituminous coal and lignite) have been searched by the use of crossing point method. According to the results obtained from the reactors manufactured in three different sizes (R-1, R-2, and R-3), ignition temperatures of coal samples were 161–172 °C for bituminous coal and 143–175 °C for lignite; average temperature rise was 0.92–1.45 °C min−1 for bituminous coal and 1.47–2.98 °C min−1 for lignite; spontaneous combustion risk index was determined in the range of 5.61–8.88 min−1 for bituminous coal and 8.39–20.79 min−1 for lignite. As the reactor size decreased, spontaneous combustion tendencies of lignite samples increased, and no significant change was observed in bituminous coal samples. It has been found that the effect of reactor size on the spontaneous combustion of coal gives significant results in low-rank coals but has no effect on high-rank coals.

As Europe is not on track in meeting its 2020 energy savings target, there has been quite some debate to make the energy savings target binding instead of indicative. Although the final draft text of the Energy Efficiency Directive left the option of a binding target explicitly open for the period beyond 2014, this statement has watered down in the adopted Directive: If still not on track mid-2014, the European Commission will propose "further measures." In this paper, we argue that a binding energy savings target could be the first EU legal initiative to look beyond 2020 serving as a beacon for other policies such as for renewables and greenhouse gases that need redefinition after 2020. We therefore explore four possible design options of a binding savings target and assess their feasibility. We conclude that a binding target at Member State level (opposed to an EU-wide target like for the EU Emission Trading System (ETS)) is the most feasible. A binding target at Member State level would ensure political accountability and commitment to deliver results while providing flexibility to choose and apply the most suitable tools to achieve the target. It could provide a framework to guide ambitious and coherent implementation of EU energy efficiency policies, as well as the strengthening of national policies. Furthermore, binding targets at Member State level will make Member States take an ambitious position in Brussels when new energy or CO2 performance standards for appliances and transport modes are to be set. A Member State binding target applied to end-users (excluding ETS companies) is a design option that covers the vast majority of the cost-effective energy savings potential, maintains the flexibility for ETS companies, and supports the most cost-effective achievement of a greater share of renewables.

Com a crescente incerteza à volta dos mercados de energia e a necessidade de descarbonização das sociedades, a procura por parte das empresas de independência energética tem vindo a crescer. Assim, a quantidade de sistemas fotovoltaicos aumentou exponencialmente e como tal, o portefólio de ativos fotovoltaicos tem acompanhado este aumento, criando a necessidade de melhorar e otimizar os processos de gestão dos mesmos. Nesta ótica o tema da alarmística dos inversores, que detetam e indicam problemas relacionados com a instalação fotovoltaica, ganha relevância. Este trabalho, realizado no âmbito de estágio curricular na EDP Comercial, teve como objetivo principal a elaboração de procedimentos relacionados com a alarmística dos inversores. Analisaram-se as problemáticas, as suas causas e avaliou-se os seus efeitos, criando-se procedimentos de resolução, bem como o estabelecimento de thresholds de intervenção para a alarmística, que variam consoante a gravidade do problema e o estado do inversor. Na criação dos procedimentos de resolução, dividiram-se as ações em Remote Service- ações de resolução feitas remotamente e Field Service - ações no terreno. Com o trabalho realizado conclui-se que a qualidade técnica da execução por parte dos instaladores e a qualidade dos materiais têm uma correlação direta na frequência da alarmística. Assegurar estas premissas para além de reduzir a quantidade de alarmes da instalação, também torna a instalação mais segura e vantajosa economicamente.

ABSTRACT THE ENERGY ANALYSIS AND THE MULTIVARIABLE ENERGY OPTIMIZATION OF A YANKEE HOOD DRYER Toppare, Akın Salih M.S., Department of Chemical Engineering Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Güniz Gürüz Januray 2002, 116 Pages The Yankee Hood dryer is the crucial section of the paper machine due to the high consumption of energy. As a consequence of continuously increasing energy costs, determination of the proper conditions is essential to operate the tissue machine in the most efficient and economic means while ensuring paper quality. The objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of the Paper Machine 3 (PM3) in `İpekkağıt` tissue factory, in order to achieve the desired mproduction rate while keeping the drying parameters within the limits at the minimum energy cost. The steady state rate of heat transfer to the wet sheet is analyzed considering the two-way mechanism, from steam through the cast iron shell and from heated air. The critical drying parameters are air supply velocity, wet and dry hood temperatures and steam flow rate. The approach to this problem is to use the steady state analytical model developed for PM2 and, to solve the material and energy balances for each system defined previously [1]. Data for the machine parameters are taken from the plant. Balance equations are solved with the available data for the unknown parameters and for the determination of drying parameters. Three heat exchangers together with the Yankee hood dryer were also included in the analysis of the overall system. In sequence these are used to heat process water, for ceiling heating and to heat the make-up air stream respectively. The overall energy usage efficiency of the dryer was calculated as 38% and the corresponding values were obtained as 41, 49 and 50% by the inclusion of heat exchanger into the system boundary. For the optimization studies, energy consumption is related to the drying parameters. The total energy consumption consist of steam, electricity and natural gas; which are expressed as functions of steam flow rate and the air temperature of wet and dry hoods. A computer program using the Simplex Method is used to evaluate the optimum values of each drying parameter and hence the consumption ivvalues. A typical set of results with the optimized values for 1 hour production of tissue paper 1 has shown the consumption of 1759 kW of natural gas, 1242 kW of steam and 575 kW of electricity. Based on the cost values $ 26, $ 34.8 and $ 34.3 were obtained respectively. The optimized values of wet and dry hood temperatures and the steam flow rate (486°K, 416°K and 1 1430 kg/h) are close to the values taken from the factory (497°K, 425°K and 13200 kg/h) for a maximum production Keywords: Yankee Hood Dryer, Paper Drying, Energy Consumption, Linear Optimization, Simplex Method. öz YANKEE HOOD KURUTUCUSUNUN ENERJİ ANALİZİ VE ÇOK DEĞİŞKENLİ ENERJİ OPTİMİZASYONU Toppare, Akın Salih Yüksek Lisans, Kimya Mühendisliği Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Güniz Gürüz Ocak 2002, 116 Sayfa Yankee Hood kurutucusu yüksek enerji tüketimi nedeniyle kağıt makinasının en önemli kısmıdır: Sürekli artan enerji Batları sonunda, istenilen kağıt özelliklerinin sağlanması ile birlikte, kağıt makinasının verimli ve ekonomik çalışması çok önemlidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı İpekkağit Sânayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. fabrikasında bulanan 3 numaralı kurutucunun istenilen üretim hızında çalışabilmesi amacıyla viperformansının incelenmesidir. Bu amacı sağlarken kurutma limitleri içerisinde mümkün olan en düşük enerji maliyetin sağlanması hedeflenmiştir. Islak kağıt üzerine yatışkın durumdaki ısı transferi buhardan ve ısıtılmış havadan olmak üzere iki yönlü olarak analiz edilmiştir. Kritik kurutma parametreleri olarak hava-hızı, yaş ve kuru kısımdaki haubelerin sıcaklığı ve buhar debisi belirlenmiştir. Kurutma makinası 2 için geliştirilmiş olan yatışkın durum analitik model 3 numaralı kurutucu için adapte edilmiş ve kurulmuş olan kütle ve enerji denkliklerinin çözülmüştür [1]. Analizler için gerekli veriler fabrikadan alınmıştır. Bilinmeyen parametreler, bilinen verilerle denkliklerin çözülmesi yoluyla bulunmuştur. Yankee silindiri ve haubelerden oluşan kurutma sisteminin analiz sınırları, varolan ısı değiştiricilerinin eklenmesi ile genişletilmiştir. Isı değiştiricileri sırasıyla geri dönüşüm havası, kullanma suyu ve çatının ısıtılması amacıyla kullanılmaktadırlar. Isı değiştiriciler olmadan ısıl verimlilik %38 iken sırayla eşanjörlerin katılmasıyla bu rakam %4T, %49 ve %50 ye ulaşmıştır. Optimizasyon çalışmaları için kullanılan enerji miktarı kurutma parametrelerine bağlanmıştır. Harcanan toplam enerji buhar, elektrik ve doğal gaz şeklinde üç ana kaynaktan oluşup, miktarlar sırası ile buhar debisi ve yaş ve kuru haube sıcaklıklarına bağlanmıştır: Simplex metodunu kullanan bir bilgisayar programı ile hesaplamalar yapılmıştır. Bir saat baz alınarak yapılan bir ürün çalışmasında 1759 kW doğal gaz, 1242 k W buhar ve 575 kW elektrik harcaması viibulunmuştur. Maliyet olarak bu rakamlar sırasıyla 26$, 34.8$ ve 34.3$ tutarındadır. Optimize edilmiş olan yaş ve kuru haube sıcaklıkları ve buhar debisi (486°K, 416°K and 1 1430 kg/s), fabrikadan en verimli üretim değeri olarak alınan değerlere oldukça yakındır (497° K, 425 °K ve 13200 kg/s). Anahtar Kelimeler: Yankee Hood Kurutucusu, Kağıt Kurutma, Enerji Sarfiyatı, Lineer Optimizasyon, Simplex Metodu. vııı 116

Abstract The transport sector is one of the major drivers of global climate change, with a large share related to the personal use of cars. Paradoxically, as efforts are undertaken to reduce this share, a trend to buy large, heavy cars with comparatively high fuel consumption is occurring nearly worldwide. In this article, we analyze the possible influence of social norms in car-buying decisions and in particular in the trend towards sport utility vehicles (SUVs). We develop a model applying a multi-criteria decision analysis approach and quantify the influence of social norms on car-buying decisions. Four main data sources are used: Surveys on German car buyers and their preferences conducted by VuMA Touchpoints and ARAL, longitudinal data by the Sinus-Institute on different social groups in German society, as well as ADAC assessments on characteristics of different car types. Our results indicate that social norms play a significant role in driving the demand for heavyweight passenger cars across most social groups, while the desire for social esteem leads some groups in particular to purchase SUVs and off-road vehicles. By taking society’s heterogeneity into account, we show that social norms are group-specific and not universal in society. Nevertheless, car choice is to a certain extent always influenced by social norms and ranges among different social groups between 24% and 42% in our model calculations. The novel approach taken in this research can be applied beyond the mobility sector to other environmentally significant consumer behaviors.

oz HAFİF PETROLLERİN YANMA MEKANİZMALARINA MATRİSİN VE BASINCIN ETKİLERİNİN ISISAL ANALİZ TEKNİKLERİYLE İNCELENMESİ KESKİN, Cengizhan Yüksek Lisans, Petrol ve Doğal Gaz Mühendisliği Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Mustafa V. KÖK Nisan 2001, 115 Sayfa Yerinde yanma birçok kimyasal ve fiziksel oluşum içeren karmaşık bir işlemdir. Bu işlemin verimliliğini artırmak için, petrolün yanmasını etkileyen faktörler daha fazla bilgi edinmek gereklidir. Bu çalışma, matrisin ve basıncın hafif petrollerin yanmasına olan etkileri üzerine odaklanmıştır. Bu çalışmanın temel amaçlan, reaksiyon parametrelerinin, petrollerin API gravite farklarının yanmaya olan etkilerinin, matrisdeki ve parçacık boyutundaki değişikliklerin reaksiyon parametrelerine olan etkilerinin ve basınçdaki değişimin reaksiyon kinetiğine ve parametrelerine olan etkilerinin belirlenmesidir. Bu çalışmada, 10 °C/dak. ısıtma hızında ve yaklaşık 50 mg ağırlığındaki numuneler kullanılarak 16 termogravimetri/türevsel termogravimetri ve 56 yüksek basınçlı türevsel taramalı kalorimetre deneyleri yapıldı. Deneylerde kullanılan numuneler petrol-kireçtaşı ve petrol-kumtaşı karışımlarından oluşmaktadır.Termogravimetri ve türevsel termogravimetri deneylerinden elde edilen verilerin kinetik analizi, Arrhenius kinetik teorisine dayanan Arrhenius ve Coats- Redfern kinetik analiz modelleriyle yapıldı. Yüksek basınçlı türevsel taramalı kalorimetre deneylerinden elde edilen veriler ise Roger-Morris kinetik modeli kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Tüm bu modellerden yararlanılarak reaksiyonların aktivasyon enerjileri, katsayıları ve Arrhenius sabitleri hesaplanmıştır. Analizlerin sonucunda, petrolün API gravitesi arttıkça, petrol + kireçtaşı karışımlarının düşük ve yüksek sıcaklıkdaki oxidasyon bölgelerinde aktivasyon enerjisinin düştüğü görüldü. Petrol + kumtaşı numunelerinde parçacık boyutundaki değişim sonucunda herhangi bir kesin sonuç elde edilemedi. Yüksek basınçlı türevsel taramalı kalorimetre deneylerinin birçoğunun sonucunda, basınç arttıkça reaksiyon sıcaklıkları ve aktivasyon enerjileri azaldı ama toplam kalorilik değerler arttı. Yine bu deneylerde parçacık boyutu küçüldükçe, aktivasyon enerjileri azaldığı buna karşın toplam kalorifik değerlerin arttığı gözlendi. Anahtar Kelimeler: Isısal Analiz, Termogravimetri, Türevsel Termogravimetrik Analiz, Türevsel Taramalı Kalorimetre, Yanma, Kinetik Analiz, Aktivasyon Enerjisi VI ABSTRACT EFFECTS OF MATRIX AND PRESSURE ON LIGHT CRUDE OIL COMBUSTION BY THERMAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES KESKİN, Cengizhan M.Sc, Department of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mustafa V. KÖK April 2001, 115 Pages In-situ combustion is a complex process involving many chemical and physical changes. In order to improve its efficiency it is necessary to have more knowledge of the factors influencing the process. This study focused on the effects of matrix and pressure on light crude oil combustion. Main objectives of the study are to determine; the parameters of the reactions, the effects of API gravity differences of crude oils on combustion, effects of changes in sand type and mesh size on reaction parameters and effects of changes in pressure on both reaction kinetics and parameters. A total of 16 TG/DTG and 56 HPDSC experiments were performed with a sample size of approximately 50 mg, at heating rate of 10 °C/min. Samples used in the experiments were composed of crude oil-limestone and crude oil- sandstone mixtures. IllArrhenius and Coats and Redfern methods, both based on Arrhenius kinetic theory, were used for the kinetic analysis of the data generated by the TG/DTG experiments. On the other hand, Roger and Morris method was used to analyse the data obtained from HPDSC experiments. Using these methods, activation energies, reaction orders and Arrhenius constants of the reactions were calculated. From the results of the analysis, it is concluded that as the API gravity of the crude oil increased, activation energies for both LTO and HTO regions of crude oil + limestone samples decreased, but no exact results were reached for the crude oil + sandstone samples from the changes in mesh size. In most of the HPDSC experiments, as the pressure increased, reaction temperatures and activation energies decreased but the total heating values increased and as the mesh size increased, activation energies decreased but the total heating values increased. Key Words: Thermal Analysis, Thermogravimetry, Differential Thermal Analysis, Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Combustion, Kinetic Analysis, Activation Energy IV 115

This paper assesses the capacity of Whitehouse, Jamaica to adapt to climate change. A community-based vulnerability assessment was conducted that employed semi-structured interviews with community members within or related to the tourism, fisheries and agricultural sectors. The results were analysed using the Local Adaptive Capacity (LAC) framework, which characterises adaptive capacity based on five elements: asset base; institutions and entitlements; knowledge and information; innovation; and flexible forward-looking decision-making and governance. This paper contributes to the literature in three ways. First, it argues that many elements of the LAC framework correspond with an evolutionary perspective on adaptive capacity. Second, it offers an in-depth case study of the capacity of Whitehouse to adapt to climate change. Third, it offers a critical assessment of whether the LAC framework fully captures the important elements of adaptive capacity.

Torrefaction is a promising bioenergy pre-treatment technology, with potential to make a major contribution to the commodification of biomass. However, there is limited scientific knowledge on the techno-economic performance of torrefaction. This study therefore improves available knowledge on torrefaction by providing detailed insights into state of the art prospects of the commercial utilisation of torrefaction technology over time. Focussing on and based on the current status of the compact moving bed reactor, we identify process performance characteristics such as thermal efficiency and mass yield and discuss their determining factors through analysis of mass and energy balances. This study has shown that woody biomass can be torrefied with a thermal and mass efficiency of 94% and 48% respectively (on a dry ash free basis). For straw, the corresponding theoretical energetic efficiency is 96% and mass efficiency is 65%. In the long term, the technical performance of torrefaction processes is expected to improve and energy efficiencies are expected to be at least 97% as optimal torgas use and efficient heat transfer are realised. Short term production costs for woody biomass TOPs (torrefied pellets) are estimated to be between 3.3 and 4.8 US$/GJLHV, falling to 2.1–5.1 US$/GJLHV in the long term. At such cost levels, torrefied pellets would become competitive with traditional pellets. For full commercialisation, torrefaction reactors still require to be optimised. Of importance to torrefaction system performance is the achievement of consistent and homogeneous, fully hydrophobic and stable product, capable of utilising different feedstocks, at desired end-use energy densities.

Some Parties (Countries) to the UNFCCC decided to include the carbon uptake by harvested wood products (HWP) in a new general accounting framework after 2012 (post Kyoto). The analysis aims to make a comparison between the cascaded use of HWP and the use of wood for energy. We combine the new HWP framework with an assumed increased 50 million m3harvest level in Canada and evaluate the impact of the GHG emissions over a 100-year period. Our reference case assumes all harvested wood is an immediate CO2emission (IPCC default) and no substitution effects, i.e. annual GHG emissions of 41 million tonnes CO2eq. In our wood utilization scenario's, harvested trees are allocated (in varying shares) to three end-products: construction wood, paper products and pellets for power production. In comparison with our base case, a combination of fossil fuel substitution, material substitution and temporary carbon uptake by HWP leads to significant decreases in GHG emissions. All scenario's show annual GHG emission between 18 and 21 million tonnes CO2eqexcept for triple use without recycling (at least 24 million tonnes CO2eq). We conclude that GHG emissions of our scenarios are substantially lower than IPCC default. However, it is difficult to incorporate one single method to account for GHG uptake and emissions by HWP, due to end use efficiency and recycling options. Further GHG allocation over individual countries is not straightforward and needs further research. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.