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Aim and Introduction Carbon tax is one of the most important policy tools in the field of energy, which is applied to the consumption, production or distribution of fossil energy, including oil products, coal, natural gas, etc. The purpose of carbon tax is to reduce economic and environmental effects caused by pollution by including environmental costs in the price of goods and services. This policy tool can bring positive economic and environmental consequences through changes in consumer and producer behavior. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of carbon tax on energy-intensive and non-energy-intensive industries in different regions of the world. Methodology Since a CGE model can describe the interactions between different factors in macroeconomic systems and examine the effects of a policy at the global level, therefore, a dynamic multi-regional CGE model has been used to better understand the policy effects. Results and Discussion The results show that the carbon tax in all scenarios leads to an increase in the price of goods with high energy intensity in all regions, and the price of goods with low energy intensity decreases, except in the group of developed and high-income countries. Production in the energy-intensive and non-energy-intensive sectors is facing an average decrease. Imports in the energy-intensive sector, except for the group of countries with higher-than-average income, will decrease for other groups, and in the non-energy-intensive sector as well. Conclusion To investigate the effect of carbon tax on the industries of different countries, first the countries of the world were grouped into 5 regions based on the criteria of the World Bank and then 5 policy scenarios based on the report of the International Energy Agency were implemented in each region. For modeling, a dynamic calculable general equilibrium model was used in order to achieve more accurate results, and then important industrial consequences were obtained by solving the model. From the results of this research and the studies that have been carried out so far, it can be seen that what is decisive in the consequences of the implementation of the carbon tax is the region and the country implementing the policy. Based on this, the policy makers, considering the national and regional conditions and being aware of the possible effects of the policy, can include assumptions in the design and implementation of the policy in order to achieve efficient and appropriate conditions in the implementation of the carbon tax by reducing the negative effects. Based on the results of the research, it was observed that due to the differences in the regions, the macroeconomic effects in the industry will be different for different regions of the world. Therefore, one of the important points in the effort to bring the emission of greenhouse gases to zero is to pay attention to the differences in industries in different countries and the coordinated actions of the governments with each other for technical and financial support in order to accelerate the transformation of clean energy and reach the commitment goal. Since energy consumption is mainly related to production activities, especially production from energy-intensive industries, reducing greenhouse gas emissions from industry takes more time than some economic sectors. For this purpose, governments should present regular and specific programs to attract investments in the long term so that they can guide industries in the direction of deploying the most efficient technologies. The governments that implement carbon tax policies can also use the collected tax revenues to strengthen energy innovation. Therefore, industries that use unclean energy sources as production inputs, by upgrading production technologies, in addition to reducing production costs, can specialize in producing clean products

Aim and Introduction Carbon tax is one of the most important policy tools in the field of energy, which is applied to the consumption, production or distribution of fossil energy, including oil products, coal, natural gas, etc. The purpose of carbon tax is to reduce economic and environmental effects caused by pollution by including environmental costs in the price of goods and services. This policy tool can bring positive economic and environmental consequences through changes in consumer and producer behavior. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of carbon tax on energy-intensive and non-energy-intensive industries in different regions of the world. Methodology Since a CGE model can describe the interactions between different factors in macroeconomic systems and examine the effects of a policy at the global level, therefore, a dynamic multi-regional CGE model has been used to better understand the policy effects. Results and Discussion The results show that the carbon tax in all scenarios leads to an increase in the price of goods with high energy intensity in all regions, and the price of goods with low energy intensity decreases, except in the group of developed and high-income countries. Production in the energy-intensive and non-energy-intensive sectors is facing an average decrease. Imports in the energy-intensive sector, except for the group of countries with higher-than-average income, will decrease for other groups, and in the non-energy-intensive sector as well. Conclusion To investigate the effect of carbon tax on the industries of different countries, first the countries of the world were grouped into 5 regions based on the criteria of the World Bank and then 5 policy scenarios based on the report of the International Energy Agency were implemented in each region. For modeling, a dynamic calculable general equilibrium model was used in order to achieve more accurate results, and then important industrial consequences were obtained by solving the model. From the results of this research and the studies that have been carried out so far, it can be seen that what is decisive in the consequences of the implementation of the carbon tax is the region and the country implementing the policy. Based on this, the policy makers, considering the national and regional conditions and being aware of the possible effects of the policy, can include assumptions in the design and implementation of the policy in order to achieve efficient and appropriate conditions in the implementation of the carbon tax by reducing the negative effects. Based on the results of the research, it was observed that due to the differences in the regions, the macroeconomic effects in the industry will be different for different regions of the world. Therefore, one of the important points in the effort to bring the emission of greenhouse gases to zero is to pay attention to the differences in industries in different countries and the coordinated actions of the governments with each other for technical and financial support in order to accelerate the transformation of clean energy and reach the commitment goal. Since energy consumption is mainly related to production activities, especially production from energy-intensive industries, reducing greenhouse gas emissions from industry takes more time than some economic sectors. For this purpose, governments should present regular and specific programs to attract investments in the long term so that they can guide industries in the direction of deploying the most efficient technologies. The governments that implement carbon tax policies can also use the collected tax revenues to strengthen energy innovation. Therefore, industries that use unclean energy sources as production inputs, by upgrading production technologies, in addition to reducing production costs, can specialize in producing clean products

Evapotranspiration estimation is one of the most important water balance components and involves various complexities. In general, energy balance models are divided into two categories: single-source and two-source models. Choosing a model to estimate ET from among the existing energy balance models is challenging because each model has strengths and limitations. The goal of the present research is to introduce and compare several evapotranspiration estimation methods, including Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) model, Mapping EvapoTranspiration at high Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) model, Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) model, Simpled Surface Energy Balance Index (S-SEBI) model, Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) model— Two- Source (soil + canopy) (TSM) model and Two-Source Time Integrated (TSTIM) model. Some advantages of the single-source energy balance model S_SEBI include the following: It is possible to implement it using only images without the need for weather data. Therefore, if the number of meteorological stations in the area is low, this method can be utilized. No need for a land use map. One disadvantage of this model is that it can only be used in cases where atmospheric conditions across the entire image are constant. Due to the simplicity and lower complexity of the structure and assumptions of the SSEBop model, it has increased operational capability for calculating actual evapotranspiration over large areas. However, it is not recommended for regions with heterogeneous vegetation cover, mountainous areas, high albedo regions, or high levels of radiation, and in such areas, the TSEB algorithm is recommended. Due to some errors and uncertainties in these surface energy balance models, extensive studies are required to overcome these limitations.

Evapotranspiration estimation is one of the most important water balance components and involves various complexities. In general, energy balance models are divided into two categories: single-source and two-source models. Choosing a model to estimate ET from among the existing energy balance models is challenging because each model has strengths and limitations. The goal of the present research is to introduce and compare several evapotranspiration estimation methods, including Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) model, Mapping EvapoTranspiration at high Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) model, Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) model, Simpled Surface Energy Balance Index (S-SEBI) model, Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) model— Two- Source (soil + canopy) (TSM) model and Two-Source Time Integrated (TSTIM) model. Some advantages of the single-source energy balance model S_SEBI include the following: It is possible to implement it using only images without the need for weather data. Therefore, if the number of meteorological stations in the area is low, this method can be utilized. No need for a land use map. One disadvantage of this model is that it can only be used in cases where atmospheric conditions across the entire image are constant. Due to the simplicity and lower complexity of the structure and assumptions of the SSEBop model, it has increased operational capability for calculating actual evapotranspiration over large areas. However, it is not recommended for regions with heterogeneous vegetation cover, mountainous areas, high albedo regions, or high levels of radiation, and in such areas, the TSEB algorithm is recommended. Due to some errors and uncertainties in these surface energy balance models, extensive studies are required to overcome these limitations.

Objective: One of the most critical meteorological variables influenced by climate change is the Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP), a key parameter in the design of high-risk water infrastructures such as dams. This study assesses the impacts of climate change on PMP across the coastal provinces of the Caspian Sea (including synoptic stations in Anzali, Rasht, Ramsar, Babolsar, Qaemshahr, and Gorgan). Methods: To generate climate change scenarios for two periods (2025-2054 and 2055-2084), the outputs of 18 AOGCM models and three greenhouse gas emission scenarios (SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5) were used. To reduce uncertainties in the AOGCM outputs, two methods-weighted averaging and probabilistic analysis-were employed. In the weighted averaging method, AOGCM models were ranked and weighted based on their accuracy in simulating precipitation of baseline period. In the probabilistic method, probability distributions were applied to generate precipitation scenarios at probability levels of 0.5, 0.75, and 0.90.Results: The findings revealed significant uncertainty among AOGCM outputs and emission scenarios in estimating PMP, indicating that PMP changes in the studied stations do not follow a consistent pattern. However, in the weighted averaging approach, PMP is generally expected to decrease in the first period and show a slight increase in the second period.Conclusions: For designing high-risk structures, it is recommended to utilize the results from the critical scenario with a 0.90 probability level. In this case, the increase in PMP due to climate change varies from approximately 12% at Qaemshahr station to a maximum of 48% at Gorgan station.

Objective: One of the most critical meteorological variables influenced by climate change is the Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP), a key parameter in the design of high-risk water infrastructures such as dams. This study assesses the impacts of climate change on PMP across the coastal provinces of the Caspian Sea (including synoptic stations in Anzali, Rasht, Ramsar, Babolsar, Qaemshahr, and Gorgan). Methods: To generate climate change scenarios for two periods (2025-2054 and 2055-2084), the outputs of 18 AOGCM models and three greenhouse gas emission scenarios (SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5) were used. To reduce uncertainties in the AOGCM outputs, two methods-weighted averaging and probabilistic analysis-were employed. In the weighted averaging method, AOGCM models were ranked and weighted based on their accuracy in simulating precipitation of baseline period. In the probabilistic method, probability distributions were applied to generate precipitation scenarios at probability levels of 0.5, 0.75, and 0.90.Results: The findings revealed significant uncertainty among AOGCM outputs and emission scenarios in estimating PMP, indicating that PMP changes in the studied stations do not follow a consistent pattern. However, in the weighted averaging approach, PMP is generally expected to decrease in the first period and show a slight increase in the second period.Conclusions: For designing high-risk structures, it is recommended to utilize the results from the critical scenario with a 0.90 probability level. In this case, the increase in PMP due to climate change varies from approximately 12% at Qaemshahr station to a maximum of 48% at Gorgan station.

The application of flip bucket and triangular launchers with different shapes has been given more attention due to safety and better energy consumption to protect the downstream bed of water structures, as well as economic benefits compared to other energy consumers. The objective of this research was to investigate the energy loss of the passing flow in the dentated flip bucket and dentated triangular sill spillways in laboratory and numerical conditions. Physical and numerical modeling was used in a rectangular flume with a length of 9 meters, a width of 0.5 meters, and a height of 0.5 meters, flip bucket, and triangular spillways with dentated with specific dimensions according to the USBR standard in different discharges intensities in laboratory and numerical conditions. The amount of energy loss in the dentated flip bucket spillway was 71.4% and the dentated triangular sill spillway was 74.8% in laboratory conditions, which showed that the dentated triangular sill spillway has a better performance in terms of energy loss than the flip bucket and triangular spillway. The results showed that the shape of the spillway geometry and the presence of the dentated at the end of the structure is an important and influential factor in the amount of energy loss of the currents passing through the dentated flip bucket and dentated triangular sill spillways, which causes more broken and compressed flow lines and, as a result, an increase in speed at the moment. The launch and finally the relative loss of energy is more downstream of the structure. After determining the better performance of the dentated triangular sill spillway in energy loss, the numerical simulation of the dentated triangular sill spillway was performed using the numerical calculation method in Flow-3D software. The results of the analyses indicated that the amount of energy loss in the dentated triangular sill spillway in the numerical calculations was 87.5%, which showed the alignment and correctness of the tests performed with the laboratory conditions.

The application of flip bucket and triangular launchers with different shapes has been given more attention due to safety and better energy consumption to protect the downstream bed of water structures, as well as economic benefits compared to other energy consumers. The objective of this research was to investigate the energy loss of the passing flow in the dentated flip bucket and dentated triangular sill spillways in laboratory and numerical conditions. Physical and numerical modeling was used in a rectangular flume with a length of 9 meters, a width of 0.5 meters, and a height of 0.5 meters, flip bucket, and triangular spillways with dentated with specific dimensions according to the USBR standard in different discharges intensities in laboratory and numerical conditions. The amount of energy loss in the dentated flip bucket spillway was 71.4% and the dentated triangular sill spillway was 74.8% in laboratory conditions, which showed that the dentated triangular sill spillway has a better performance in terms of energy loss than the flip bucket and triangular spillway. The results showed that the shape of the spillway geometry and the presence of the dentated at the end of the structure is an important and influential factor in the amount of energy loss of the currents passing through the dentated flip bucket and dentated triangular sill spillways, which causes more broken and compressed flow lines and, as a result, an increase in speed at the moment. The launch and finally the relative loss of energy is more downstream of the structure. After determining the better performance of the dentated triangular sill spillway in energy loss, the numerical simulation of the dentated triangular sill spillway was performed using the numerical calculation method in Flow-3D software. The results of the analyses indicated that the amount of energy loss in the dentated triangular sill spillway in the numerical calculations was 87.5%, which showed the alignment and correctness of the tests performed with the laboratory conditions.

IntroductionWheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is important in the food regime of three-quarters of the world's population because it is nutritious and cheap compared to other similar foods. The competition between wheat and weeds is considered as one of the most important limitations of global wheat production. In Iran, weeds are of particular importance in reducing wheat yield, and according to the surveys, the average damage caused by weeds in the country's wheat fields is 23%. The most common way to manage wheat weeds is herbicide application. Every crop resists herbicides at a given growth stage, otherwise, herbicide application will damage the main crop. In recent years, the most frequent broadleaf herbicides used for weed chemical control in wheat are 2-4-D + MCPA (U46 combi fluid). To apply the 2,4-D herbicide, wheat should be at the tillering to the appearance of the first visible node stage. Application of 2,4-D after the first node will cause spike deformation and yield reduction due to the adverse effect of herbicide on sporogenesis. This study investigated different application times effects of 2-4-D + MCPA (U46combifluid) and Bromoxynil + MCPA (Bromicide MA) on winter wheat yield and weed control. The study aimed to determine the application time of the best herbicide with minimal damage on dryland wheat.Materials and MethodsTo investigate the effect of hormone herbicides on weeds and the yield of dryland bread wheat in different vegetative growth stages in cold dryland areas, a field experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design arrangement with four replications during 2021-23 cropping seasons at the Dryland Agriculture Research Institute, Maragheh, East Azerbaijan. Treatments included the application of 2-4-D + MCPA (U46combifluid) and Bromoxynil + MCPA (Bromicide MA) (1.5 L ha-1) at the tillering (Z29), the 2nd node (Z32), and the booting stages (Z45) with two control treatments of weeding (weed infested) and no weeding (weed free). The Varan wheat cultivar was sown at a depth of 4–6 cm with a seeding density of 380 seeds per square meter. To evaluate weed type and density (plant m-2), sampling was done 30 days after herbicide application. The crop was harvested at full maturity to collect data for grain yield and a thousand grain weight and grain/spike. After checking the normality of the data, they were analyzed with GenStat (V.12) software and the mean comparison was performed by the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at the 5% probability level.Results and DiscussionThe results indicated that the weed growth time is affected by the rainfall in dryland conditions so that in the 2021-2 year, the main spring precipitations occurred in May while in the 2022-23 year, it happened in April. Therefore, for the first cropping season, the highest weed density was recorded in the second node stage whereas at the tillering stage in the second cropping season. In the first year, due to lower rainfall, and drought stress, a further decrease in wheat yield was observed in response to the delayed herbicide application so that it was higher in the 2-4-D + MCPA herbicide treatment. In the 2021-22 year, the lowest yields were recorded for 2-4-D + MCPA and Bromoxynil + MCPA herbicides in the booting stage with 1568 and 1710 kg ha-1, respectively. In the 2022-23 year, the lowest grain yield was observed for 2-4-D + MCPA in the second node, and booting stages, respectively, 1701 and 1747 kg ha-1.ConclusionBased on the results, wheat is more sensitive to delayed application of 2-4-D + MCPA and reduces wheat yield more, in contrast, it is more tolerant to bromoxynil + MCPA herbicide (Bromicide MA), and it can be applied up to the 2nd node stage (Z32).

IntroductionWheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is important in the food regime of three-quarters of the world's population because it is nutritious and cheap compared to other similar foods. The competition between wheat and weeds is considered as one of the most important limitations of global wheat production. In Iran, weeds are of particular importance in reducing wheat yield, and according to the surveys, the average damage caused by weeds in the country's wheat fields is 23%. The most common way to manage wheat weeds is herbicide application. Every crop resists herbicides at a given growth stage, otherwise, herbicide application will damage the main crop. In recent years, the most frequent broadleaf herbicides used for weed chemical control in wheat are 2-4-D + MCPA (U46 combi fluid). To apply the 2,4-D herbicide, wheat should be at the tillering to the appearance of the first visible node stage. Application of 2,4-D after the first node will cause spike deformation and yield reduction due to the adverse effect of herbicide on sporogenesis. This study investigated different application times effects of 2-4-D + MCPA (U46combifluid) and Bromoxynil + MCPA (Bromicide MA) on winter wheat yield and weed control. The study aimed to determine the application time of the best herbicide with minimal damage on dryland wheat.Materials and MethodsTo investigate the effect of hormone herbicides on weeds and the yield of dryland bread wheat in different vegetative growth stages in cold dryland areas, a field experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design arrangement with four replications during 2021-23 cropping seasons at the Dryland Agriculture Research Institute, Maragheh, East Azerbaijan. Treatments included the application of 2-4-D + MCPA (U46combifluid) and Bromoxynil + MCPA (Bromicide MA) (1.5 L ha-1) at the tillering (Z29), the 2nd node (Z32), and the booting stages (Z45) with two control treatments of weeding (weed infested) and no weeding (weed free). The Varan wheat cultivar was sown at a depth of 4–6 cm with a seeding density of 380 seeds per square meter. To evaluate weed type and density (plant m-2), sampling was done 30 days after herbicide application. The crop was harvested at full maturity to collect data for grain yield and a thousand grain weight and grain/spike. After checking the normality of the data, they were analyzed with GenStat (V.12) software and the mean comparison was performed by the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at the 5% probability level.Results and DiscussionThe results indicated that the weed growth time is affected by the rainfall in dryland conditions so that in the 2021-2 year, the main spring precipitations occurred in May while in the 2022-23 year, it happened in April. Therefore, for the first cropping season, the highest weed density was recorded in the second node stage whereas at the tillering stage in the second cropping season. In the first year, due to lower rainfall, and drought stress, a further decrease in wheat yield was observed in response to the delayed herbicide application so that it was higher in the 2-4-D + MCPA herbicide treatment. In the 2021-22 year, the lowest yields were recorded for 2-4-D + MCPA and Bromoxynil + MCPA herbicides in the booting stage with 1568 and 1710 kg ha-1, respectively. In the 2022-23 year, the lowest grain yield was observed for 2-4-D + MCPA in the second node, and booting stages, respectively, 1701 and 1747 kg ha-1.ConclusionBased on the results, wheat is more sensitive to delayed application of 2-4-D + MCPA and reduces wheat yield more, in contrast, it is more tolerant to bromoxynil + MCPA herbicide (Bromicide MA), and it can be applied up to the 2nd node stage (Z32).

Water and wastewater companies must conduct risk assessments and develop management plans to mitigate risks and enhance resilience. This process involves identifying vulnerable assets, associated threats, and the potential consequences for the company and society. Financially justified countermeasures are then proposed to reduce risk and increase resilience. The result of the risk assessment is the development of a risk management plan model. Climate change has significantly impacted water supply systems, particularly in countries like Iran. By monetizing risk impacts, and comparing costs of current risks with those under managed adaptation programs, the operational resilience of a water supply system can be determined. This research examines the current resilience of the JVWCD facility, which serves 220,000 people, using the US Environmental Protection Agency's Climate Resilience Assessment Tool (CREAT). Climate projections for the region were made for 2060 and 2070. Assets and threats were identified, and their financial risks were assessed. Feasible long-term adaptation scenarios were extracted from the CREAT library, and two models, GWM and AIMD-P, were evaluated as adaptation plans until 2060. The evaluations indicated that implementing the GWM model would increase resilience by 68 percent compared to the current situation. If both models are implemented, resilience will increase to 92 percent of the current level, resulting in a financial optimization of 93 million dollars.