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Semiconducting polymers are important in organic photovoltaics, photocatalysis, and other energy applications. The stability of organic photovoltaic devices is a critical factor limiting their commercialisation, but structural origins of the primary degradation mechanisms remain largely unknown. This project will identify specific structural changes that occur in the charged polymers (the active species during photovoltaic operation) in combination with known degradation factors such as oxygen and water. In turn, this will enable the design of new, more robust materials. Identification of specific degradation mechanisms will benefit not just the organic photovoltaic field, but also many other applications where such polymers are utilised: light emitting diodes in display technology, for example. To explore these degradation mechanisms in semiconducting polymers, electrochemistry and Raman spectroscopy will be combined to create the powerful but seldom-used spectroelectrochemical resonance Raman. This technique is not only highly sensitive to small changes in molecular structure and conformation, but also allows the selective probing of a single species in a system with multiple co-existing species. This project therefore aims to apply this novel technique of spectroelectrochemical resonance Raman to a series of conjugated polymers to ascertain specific structural changes during electron transfer, in order to elucidate their degradation mechanisms. A direct outcome of this project will be the creation of design rules to alleviate degradation in organic photovoltaic materials. As such, this project aligns directly with EPSRC's Energy theme, tackling the research areas of Materials for Energy Applications, Chemical Structure, and Electrochemical Sciences.

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Part of the UK's National Energy and Climate Plan is to seek, in cooperation with the EU to support the delivery of cost-effective, clean, and secure supplies of energy with a large part of this is to come from harnessing offshore wind in the North Sea. The European Commission has estimated that offshore wind from the North Seas can cover up to 12% of the electric power consumption in the EU by 2030. To do this offshore wind turbines are having to be built to operate in deeper waters and further offshore which allows for higher and more consistent wind loads as well as greater public acceptance due to lower visual and environmental impacts that otherwise accompany offshore wind turbines. However, as this happens it becomes increasingly economically viable to mount the wind turbine on a floating structure which is tethered to the sea floor rather than conventional methods of using a concrete anchor or driven monopoles. But the wind industry is facing many challenges on the design, manufacturing, installation, operation and maintenance of floating offshore wind turbines (FOWT), and among which the most critical challenge is the reliable methodology for predicting nonlinear dynamic responses of FOWT under complicated sea states. The FOWT is a typical rigid-flexible multi-body system, as such it must not only remain buoyant but also limit responses in pitch, roll and heave as well as maintaining position in a large variety of conditions. Excessive responses can lead to higher structural stresses and as such would incur higher costs to make the system structurally sound compared to a system encountering smaller responses, the efficiency of the turbine is also reduced by large rotational responses in pitch and roll which would also add additional wearing onto the turbine components increasing the need for repair and maintenance. As such being able to predict the responses of a FOWT system due to the multiple loads it is put under and reduce them would be required for cost-effective, efficient, and safe designs. The aim of this project is to improve the accuracy of dynamic response prediction of FOWTs and to develop a numerical programme to solve the aero-hydro-elastic-mooring-servo coupled equations of a FOWT. This project is undertaken in partnership between Newcastle University, the ReNU Centre for Doctoral Training, and the Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult. This aero-hydro-elastic-mooring-servo numerical programme will consider the loads from aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and mooring lines acting on the FOWT in various conditions, this will be coupled with structural and multi-body dynamics in order to predict the response of the FOWT in various sea states. Furthermore, control theory will be applied to discern methods of damping and reducing the responses of the FOWT using control systems. It will allow designers to consider different floating body concepts and which concept of floating body would be suitable for the area of operation that the FOWT will be placed in. The programme will be applied for code-to-code comparison with other codes as well as with published basin experimental data or full-scale measured data. It will also be applied in industry practice with a 7MW FOWT with the support of the Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult.

The offshore wind industry has experienced significant growth in recent years, and continues to expand both in the UK and worldwide. Most of the offshore wind turbines installed to date are located in relatively shallow water and are mounted on fixed bottom support structures. Given the limitation of suitable shallow water sites available with high wind resources and also to reduce the environmental and visual impact of turbines, it is necessary to extend wind turbines to deeper water through the development of floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) systems, which mount wind turbines on floating support platforms. The project aims to fill an important gap in the design, manufacturing and testing of emerging FOWT techniques by specifically characterising extreme loading on FOWTs under complex and harsh marine environments. These are typically represented by storm conditions consisting of strong wind, extreme waves, significant current, rising sea level and complex interplay between these elements, through a coordinated campaign of both advanced CFD modelling and physical wave tank tests. This has direct relevance to the current and planned activities in the UK to develop this new technology in offshore wind. In addition, the project aims to develop a suite of hierarchical numerical models that can be applied routinely for both fast and detailed analysis of the specific flow problem of environmental (wind, wave, current) loading and dynamic responses of FOWTs under realistic storm conditions. As an integral part of the project, a new experimental programme will be devised and conducted in the COAST laboratory at the University of Plymouth, providing improved understanding of the underlying physics and for validating the numerical models. Towards the end of the project, fully documented CFD software and experimental data sets will be released to relevant industrial users and into the Public Domain, so that they may be used to aid the design of future support structures of FOWTs and to secure their survivability with an extended envelope of safe operation for maximum power output.

Small scale horizontal axis wind turbines and vertical axis wind turbines are unable to handle high winds or turbulent conditions. At very high speeds wind turbines shut down. Existing designs focus on external mechanical and electrical systems to reduce the output rather than exploit the attributes of low and high wind conditions. Turbines with static blades cannot effectively capture the direct wind energy for all the blades. Existing designs rely on a small proportion of the total blade area and typically feature a symmetrical profile (equal profile each side). Existing vertical axis machines have an inherent inefficiency because while one blade is working well, other blades are effectively pulling in the wrong direction- causing them to behave as a brake. Vertogen has identified a gap in the market for a variable pitch VAWT.

"Energy storage is a vital aspect of electricity supply, balancing variation in energy demand and energy generation. A novel approach to energy storage uses refrigerated air to store energy until it is needed. Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) uses electricity to cool air to -196degC, the temperature at which it liquefies. The liquid is then stored in an insulated tank until there is a demand for the stored energy. Exposure to ambient air or waste heat from an industrial process causes rapid re-gasification of the refrigerated air and a 700-fold expansion in volume; this expansion is used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. LAES brings considerable benefits to the grid in terms of security of supply. Its large scale, long duration storage capability helps balance the grid against variation in generation and demand, with intermittency linked to the increasing contribution of renewable energy, such as wind power, in the energy generation mix. A major advantage over conventional energy storage options is that LAES systems can be placed within industrial estates or next to existing power generators in order to capture waste heat which can be used to create the gas; thus increasing the efficiency of the system. UK SME Highview Power Storage are world leaders in large scale, long duration LAES energy storage. Highview's LAES system, currently being commissioned in a demonstration plant in Pilsworth, Greater Manchester, has been designed to use off the shelf components, proven in other applications and with long lifespans (30 years), minimising technology risk. It also uses widely available and environmentally benign materials, such as gravel in the cold store. The demonstration plant uses a water based heat store; whilst this represents the current state-of-the-art, water has significant limitations and Highview, in partnership with the University of Brighton, are seeking Innovate UK support to develop an alternative, innovative HGHS that makes a significant contribution to LAES process efficiency. This project will optimise LAES technology and accelerate commercialisation. Specifically, the project will develop a High Grade Heat Store Solution (HGHS) that allows Highview's LAES system to recover higher temperature waste heat from the process itself or from contributory sources that are co-located. An innovative approach is proposed, entailing the development of an alternative heat transfer fluid (HTF) that correlates with the pressure, heat transfer, viscosity, flammability and toxicity parameters of LAES, and operates at temperatures that deliver optimized RTE within a practical, cost-effective HGHS solution."

Moves to reduce carbon emissions and improve efficiency has primed interest in new technologies for the generation of electrical power. Unlike conventional plant, new generating technologies are not naturally suited to direct connection to the fixed frequency grid supply. Furthermore, in the case of renewable generation, restrictions on geographical location pose problems for electrical connection. Power electronic conversion thus plays a significant role in efficiently capturing and distributing the generated energy. This proposal addresses one important aspect of this research area: the efficient, robust and low-cost capture and transmission of renewable energy (RE) from multiple renewable resources. The use of DC networks to aggregate and transmit power from has been identified as a solution to such problems; to date work in this area has be concentrated at concept study and simulation level. Our collaborative proposal seeks to develop a novel and innovative DC current link system. The research will investigate the academic research aspects of realising a DC current link technology for the capture of renewable energy and other forms of low-carbon-derived electrical energy. Traditional wind turbine interfacing to the AC grid has been based on AC concepts. Recently ABB have installed the first offshore interconnect based on dc transmission. The system uses their standard HVDC Light technology, which offers bidirectional power flow control. Embedded renewable generation whether wind or wave, onshore or offshore, generally does not require the bidirectional power flow capability of HVDC Light (and similar techniques) but does require efficient, low-cost multi-source control. Existing techniques, e.g.HVDC Light, are not suitable. The proposed system departs from existing DC transmission technology. The proposed system is based on the concept that paralleling energy sources should always be based on paralleling current sources - not voltage sources as currently exemplified by HVDC systems. In our proposed system the single-ended step-up converter, operated with an outer current control loop, is the basic building block. The topology is scaleable, reliable and low-cost compared with existing AC and DC converter technologies used in distribution. Connection of additional sources is simple and low-cost thus the system lends itself to community-based schemes. Additionally, the majority of lower power RE systems utilise permanent magnet generators therefore require only unidirectional power flow from the RE source to the grid. The unidirectional nature of the power flow results in significant simplification of the DC system that is not realised in AC systems and existing bidirectional DC technology. The technology that will be developed by this project is a key enabler for the integration of multi-source low-carbon energy. The academic research team will investigate detailed modelling, simulation, design and experimentation on a demonstrator DC link system. Two PhD themes have been identified. The first will have a PhD student investigating the conversion electronics required to buffer and transform generates electrical energy onto the novel network. The second PhD student will research and address the important issue of regulating the flow of power from the low carbon energy source to the centralised grid interfacing converter. A post-doctoral research fellow will provide overall project management, liaise with the industry partner during development of the six-turbine demonstrator site, and assess and evaluate the performance of the demonstrator. On completion of this project, there will be a six 15kW turbine array that demonstrates the novel conversion technologies and innovative control algorithms developed through this important research. The demonstrator will be an exemplar of the synthesis between internationally-leading academic research, industrial experience and exploitation, and entrepreneurial skill.

Nuclear fission is currently internationally recognised as a key low carbon energy source, vital in the fight against global warming, which has stimulated much interest and recent investment. For example, RCUK's energy programme has identified nuclear fission as an essential part of the "trinity" of future fuel options for the UK, alongside renewables and clean coal. However, nuclear energy is controversial, with heartfelt opinion both for and against, and there is a real requirement to make it cleaner and greener. Large international programmes of work are needed to deliver safe, reliable, economic and sustainable nuclear energy on the scale required in both the short and long term, through Gen III+ & Gen IV reactor systems. A pressing worldwide need is the development of specific spent fuel reprocessing technology suitable for these new reactors (as well as for dealing with legacy waste fuel from old reactors). The REFINE programme will assemble a multidisciplinary team across five partner universities and NNL, the UK's national nuclear laboratory to address this fuel reprocessing issue. The consortium will carry out a materials research programme to deliver fuel reprocessing by developing materials electrosynthesis through direct oxide reduction and selective electrodissolution and electroplating from molten salt systems. Developing, optimising and controlling these processes will provide methods for, and a fundamental understanding of, how best to reprocess nuclear fuel. This is in addition to the development of techniques for new molten salt systems, new sensing and analysis technologies and the establishment of the kinetics and mechanisms by which molten salt processes occur. This will facilitate rapid process development and optimization, as well as the generation of applications in related areas. A key output of the programme will be the training and development of the multidisciplinary UK researchers required to make possible clean nuclear energy and generate complementary scientific and technological breakthroughs.

"EPSRC : Elisangela Jesus D'Oliveira : EP/S023836/1" - Research council that the student is funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). - The student's name: Elisangela Jesus D'Oliveira - Training Grant Reference Number: EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Training in Renewable Energy Northeast Universities (ReNU), EP/S023836/1 Heat represents almost half of the use of energy in the UK, and around 80% of domestic heat is supplied by natural gas. Therefore, we must reduce the heating demand by increasing the efficiency and decarbonisation of the space and hot water heating systems. The adoption of low-carbon domestic heating technologies is one of the biggest challenges in the decarbonisation of the UK's energy system because 80% of the homes are already built. The retrofitting of households is one of the most cost-effective routes to reduce carbon emissions. The use of LHTES has the potential to reduce the space heating energy use by storing excess energy and bridge the gap between supply/demand mismatch characteristic of renewable energy sources or electricity peak-load. The efficiency of domestic or residential radiator could be increased using a compact LHTES, and it could be implemented as a retrofit measurement to reduce energy consumption. There are some studies of LHTES in domestic heating. Campos-Celador et al. (2014) designed a finned plate LHTES system for domestic applications using water-paraffin, allowing a volume reduction of more than 50%, comparing to a conventional hot water storage tank. Dechesne et al. (2014) studied the coupling of an air-fatty acids heat exchanger in a building ventilation system; the module could be used either for space heating or cooling. Bondareva et al. (2018) studied a finned copper radiator numerically with paraffin enhancing with Al2O3 nanoparticles, and their results demonstrated that the addition of fins and nanoparticles increases the melting rate. Sardari et al. (2020) investigated the application of combined metal foam and paraffin for domestic space heating by introducing a novel energy storage heater; their results showed that the solidification time was reduced by 45% and the heat recovery was enhanced by 73%. Many studies have been conducted to investigate the enhancement of the thermal conductivity of the PCMs with the incorporation of high conductive nanomaterials, as they increase the heat transfer rate of the PCM to tailor the application charging and discharging rates. However, a study evaluating the feasibility of the nano-enhanced PCMs (NEPCMs) applications on domestic radiators to improve the efficiency and energy-savings through heat recovery has not been conducted. Therefore, a dedicated investigation was planned with the focus on deepening the knowledge and understanding of such a technology. The lack of proper design guidelines, cost and the rate problem have delayed the deployment of LHTES devices. Therefore, this study will build and experimentally evaluate the performance of the LHTES system proposed contributing to the development of the design guidelines. References Bondareva, N. S., Gibanov, N. S., & Sheremet, M. A. (2018, November). Melting of nano-enhanced PCM inside finned radiator. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1105, No. 1, p. 012023). IOP Publishing. Campos-Celador, A., Diarce, G., Zubiaga, J. T. V., Garcia-Romero, A.M., Lopez, L. & Sala, J. M. 2014. Design of a finned plate latent heat thermal energy storage system for domestic for domestic applications. Energy Procedia, 48, 300-308. Dechesne, B., Gendebien, S., Martens, J., & Lemort, V. (2014). Designing and testing an air-PCM heat exchanger for building ventilation application coupled to energy storage. Sardari, P. T., Babaei-Mahani, R., Giddings, D., Yasseri, S., Moghimi, M. A., & Bahai, H. (2020). Energy recovery from domestic radiators using a compact composite metal Foam/PCM latent heat storage. Journal of Cleaner Production, 257, 120504.

Offshore wind turbines operate in harsh and extreme environments such as the North Sea. As blades continue getting larger, their tip speeds can exceed 100m/s. At these speeds, any particulates in the air such as rain, dust, salt, inspects etc. can wear away the surface of the blade's leading edge, a phenomenon known as leading edge erosion. This, in turn, alters the aerodynamic shape of the blade, affecting the efficiency AND potentially exposing the blade to further and more serious damage, thereby reducing the life of the blade. Whilst the mechanisms that cause leading edge erosion are not yet fully understood, it can be said that at some point, ALL wind turbine blades will suffer from some form or degree of leading edge erosion during their life, which will need to be addressed. Maintaining blades in the offshore wind sector is an expensive and dangerous job. Typically, highly skilled rope access technicians have to scale down the blades to carry out leading edge repairs. This project aims to take the first steps of developing a robotic device to carry out a number of these detailed inspections and repetitive repairs on the leading edges of blades, freeing up the time of the skilled rope access technicians, enabling them to perform specialist repairs or upgrades to blades only they can do. This would enable more blades to be inspected and treated, maximising the electrical output of the turbines that in turn benefit the owner with increased revenues, maximise the CO2 savings that everybody benefit from and increasing the security of electrical supply for the end users.