• Energy Research
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University of Salford Energy hub

The expansion of renewable energy, as part of a transition to a sustainable energy economy, has large potential to mitigate the risks associated with anthropogenic climate change. In this context, wind power is an important energy resource. The issue of public and private sector investment in wind power is a collective action problem involving a range of stakeholders, including: wind turbine companies; the National Grid; the Department of Energy and Climate Change; energy infrastructure engineers; and energy investors. However, the wind power resource base is, by its very nature, sensitive to fluctuations in climate (Edenhofer et al. 2011). This sensitivity has implications for how the costs assumed in investment decisions evolve into the future. For instance, there may be a risk of stranded assets should wind patterns change significantly over the lifetime of a wind farm. Therefore, decision-making about the positioning of future wind turbines and investment in associated infrastructure requires information relating to wind potential patterns under different scenarios of climate change, the spatial distribution of the existing transmission network, and the decision-making criteria of key stakeholders. There is also a degree of uncertainty associated with some of this information. While some of the uncertainties in the science can be characterised probabilistically, other sources of uncertainty (such as the global policies needed for a particular climate future to be realised) are not probabilistic by nature and so must be treated in a different way in taking investment and deployment decisions. In this context, a framework of Robust Decision-Making (RDM: Lempert, 2013) can be helpful. Rather than seeking an optimal solution, RDM provides a process for identifying strategies that remain robust across a range of potential future scenarios. The aim of the proposed research is to build a robust decision-making tool to help stakeholders identify wind energy investments and placements of turbines or associated infrastructure that produce satisfactory performance metrics across a wide range of possible climate futures. This decision support tool would harness existing advanced climate modelling approaches and decision-making frameworks, to help stakeholders visualise the vulnerabilities and trade-offs of different positioning strategies in the energy market. Climate information will be supplied by the climate model emulator PLASIM-ENTSem (Holden et al., 2013), a sophisticated, yet computationally very fast, approach to representing the climate. The decision-making tool would be developed, tested and evaluated with involvement from the stakeholders. As such, the tool developed would enable stakeholders to identify positioning strategies that are robust to a range of different climate change scenarios, across different Representative Concentration Pathways. In this way, the project would address the challenges of building resilience and managing climate change risks, within the wind energy sector. Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Seyboth, K., Kadner, S., Zwickel, T., Eickemeier, P., Hansen, G., Schlömer, S., Stechow, C. von and Matschoss, P.: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press., 2011. Lempert, R.: Scenarios the illuminate vulnerabilities and robust responses, Climatic Change, 117, 627-646, 2013 Holden, P. B., Edwards, N. R., Garthwaite, P. H., Fraedrich, K., Lunkeit, F., Kirk, E., Labriet, M. Kanudia, A. and Babonneau, F.: PLASIM-ENTSem: a spatio-temporal emulator of future climate change for impacts assessment, Geoscientific model development discussions, 6(2), 3349-3380, 2013

The UK’s climate change target is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 34% in 2020 and 80% in 2050 [DTI white paper]. Small wind turbines (SWTs) – rated up to 100kW – could be potentially make a significant contribution towards reducing GHG emissions. The Government has introduced a range of incentives to encourage the uptake of SWT technologies, incl. Feed-in-Tariffs (FiT), the Green Deal and removal of the need for planning permissions in some cases. Despite the recent increases in market uptake of SWTs, there remains a number of challenges that restrict both the maximisation of their power output and wider adoption of this promising renewable energy solution. SWTs typically employ fixed-pitch blades, which facilitate simple structure, low cost, and high reliability. However, due to the fixed nature of the blades, SWTs have a tendency to overspeed, causing over-loading problems at excessive wind velocities. Overloading of expensive electrical components is undesirable and often causes irreparable costly damage. An auto-stop feature to prevent such incidences has not become commonplace due to cost and powering supply limitations. The nature of wind and its inherent fluctuations, mean grid connection inverters - which convert DC current to grid compliant AC - must be oversized to deal with any excessive wind. Oversizing is a crude way to deal with the issue, but this approach has become commonplace since incumbent wind inverters are based on technology originally developed for generation of stable solar energy. The result of over specified inverters is highly inefficient (30-40%) power transfer at average site wind speed. FuturEnergy has developed an innovative system concept to overcome these problems. If successful, we will capture roughly 10% of our markets and generate a cumulative revenue total of £13.7million. This revenue will result in a cumulative profit of £5.14million. With an initial investment of £800,000, we estimate an attractive RoI of >600%.

The AIM of the proposed project is: To develop a generic conceptual hydrogeological model for the occurrence, and likely response to development, of naturally warm groundwaters in and near major faults in northern England (with particular reference to the Alston and Askrigg Blocks and their bounding fault systems). The specific OBJECTIVES to meet this aim are as follows: 1. Review the world literature on fault-associated geothermal resources in non-volcanic regions, and consider the implications of this literature for geothermal prospecting in northern England. 2. Collate, collect and interpret data (geological, geophysical, hydraulic, geochemical) from existing and new deep geothermal boreholes in the study region, and from analogous sources of information (such as archival analyses of waters found near faults in deep mines of the region when they were working). 3. Develop a formal, conceptual hydrogeological model for the occurrence of sufficient quantities of deep groundwaters abundant and hot enough to support: (i) major direct-use geothermal applications (ii) power generation using binary-cycle plants. The conceptual model will take the form of a list of rigorously justified, simplifying assumptions which together summarise best hydrogeological understanding of this type of geothermal resource. 4. For two selected case studies: (i) Test the consistency between the conceptual model and available data by means of numerical simulations, using commercial software (e.g. FEFLOW or SHEMAT), of scenarios representing natural and pumped conditions for the geothermal reservoirs. Amend the conceptual model as appropriate, taking into account the findings of the numerical simulations. (ii) Apply the logic of the finalised conceptual model to develop protocols for further geothermal exploration and development, working with the partner company to identify appropriate ways of taking into account economic factors, engineering constraints (e.g. necessity and practical feasibility of hydraulic stimulation), and environmental risk management (e.g. safe handling of brines at surface and their efficient reinjection to depth). As the costs and practicalities of deep drilling and geophysics preclude solo FIELDWORK, the student would work as part of a team, alongside staff of Cluff Geothermal Ltd and their specialist contractors. Similarly, although analysis of waters from the boreholes will be undertaken by contractors, the student will be given the opportunity to experience lab analysis to ensure they understand the origins - and limitations - of data they will be interpreting. All of the costs of these activities will be borne by Cluff Geothermal Ltd, but all data arising will be available to the student, even though they personally will only generate a small fraction of it. The IMPACT of the proposed project would be manifold: (i) Direct contribution to the prospecting and development activities of a rapidly-growing, private equity funded geosciences business (Cluff Geothernal Ltd), as it moves towards completion of what seems likely to be the first binary geothermal power plant ever constructed in the UK (ii) Involvement in the development of a new UK industry, including direct engagement in discussions with the UK government's Department of Energy & Climate Change (iii) Raising of public awareness of geothermal energy and the geoscience on which it depends, for instance through established 'meet the scientist' activities at the annual British Festival of Science (which will be held in Newcastle in 2013 and thereafter every 4 years), at the hugely popular Great North Museum (now the most-visited tourist venue in the region), and through STEM promotion activities with schoolchildren in secondary schools near to the deep geothermal drilling sites the student will be working on. (iv) Participation in media interviews (national and local, broadcast and press), for which specific prior training will be given.

The project proposed will test the feasibility via a demonstrator into applying thermoelectric energy harvesting systems to self power advanced utility water meters, designed and marketed by Elster Metering UK Ltd. Energy harvesting systems have not made an impact in this area and a standard lithium battery is typically used as the only source of electrical power in smart meters used for water metering. Thermoelectricity has achieved limited commercial success in electrical power generation, partly due to the relatively low conversion efficiency and the relatively small amount of electrical power that is generated. However, recent advances have enabled Staffordshire University to design a state-of-the-art thermoelectric Energy Harvesting System which will be commercially challenged in the water meter industry. This project will enable Elster UK to remain competitive in the Global metering market and will ensure its products continue to lead the market place.

The project goal is to establish the feasibility of the innovative use of a non contact microphone array for stuctural health diagnostics by vibration detection combined with active noise and vibration cancellation, for all the rotating machinery within an onshore wind turbine nacelle. Novel time and phase reversal techniques for received microphone signals will be investigated experimentally to investigate the possibility of high volume coverage for both vibration detection and cancellation. The array could potentially achieve a step function reduction in wind farm levelised electricity cost through a combination of several cost benefit factors. (1) Machinery lifetime extension, reduced maintenance costs and avoidance of lost revenue through reduced forced downtime and scheduled downtime; (2) Generation of increased revenue through turbine operation at higher wind speeds, increasing the capacity factor: made safely possible through reduced machinery vibration and environmentally possible through reduced noise emission; (3) Reduced noise issue costs. Benefits under all headings are estimated to total £35k per MW year, which is ~25% of an onshore turbine OPEX +CAPEX.

Sunamp Ltd and Heriot Watt University have decided to collaborate to develop a step-change technology in the solar thermal field: heat storage based on phase change materials. Solar thermal has been undervalued at domestic levels in the last years, but it is strongly believed that the proposition of a compact system based on Sunamp Heat Batteries will boost the adoption of a technology that has the capability to significantly reduce the fuel bills for hot water generation, even in Scotland.

Photovoltaics have the potential to supply all the world's energy needs. The market for photovoltaics is dominated by cells made from crystalline silicon, which account for more than 80% of today's production. Whilst other technologies are being researched, silicon's abundance, chemical stability, density, band gap and non-toxic nature mean that is certain to play a leading role in at least the medium term. More than half of bulk silicon solar cells are fabricated from multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) wafers. Although mc-Si photovoltaics have lower efficiencies than their single-crystal counterparts, their substantially lower production costs means the technologies have equal commercial viability at present. Mc-Si is produced by casting, often using a low grade feedstock, and is consequently packed with extended defects (dislocations, grain boundaries and precipitates) and transition metal impurity point defects. Recombination of photogenerated charge carriers at such defects is a major reason for the reduced efficiency of mc-Si cells. Gettering processes are routinely used either to redistribute the defects or remove them from the material. However, such processes are not completely effective. One of the major reasons for this is that the interaction between defects prevents them being gettered. This project aims to further the fundamental understanding of defect interactions in mc-Si. The thermodynamics of interactions between transition metals (particularly iron) and extended defects (particularly dislocations and oxide precipitates) will be studied experimentally. Passivation of key extended defects will also be investigated. The fundamental knowledge obtained should allow the development of new or modified gettering processes with the ultimate aim of facilitating the use of dirtier (hence cheaper) feedstocks for silicon photovoltaics.

WINSPEC will study the feasibility and specification of a marine operated, low frequency modulated ultrasonic 'pulse-echo' method for monitoring the structure and condition of the layered foundations of offshore wind turbines. Numerical modelling and some laboratory testing will be undertaken to evaluate the sensitivity and characteristics of the spectral response to differing layered model representations of the foundation structure with various condition 'defects' built in. This work will provide experimental and modeled analyses to support a feasibility assessment of the 'pulse-echo' approach, where possible, identifying characteristic acoustic patterns (or signatures) that relate to varying the material properties of the layers and structure of the layered sequence, such as thickness and density and the introduction of inter-layer water. This work will be supported by E.ON Technologies (Ratcliffe) Ltd. who are responsible the maintenance of many of the UK's offshore wind farms such as Robin Rigg in the Solway Firth. These wind farms are national assets; for example Robin Rigg provides 180 MW of power to the National Grid (enough energy for over 100, 000 households). This method could form the basis for a safe, low power technology for deployment on underwater unmanned vehicles for inspecting the inner structure and condition of offshore wind turbine foundations. In so doing, WINSPEC would stimulate a shift towards improved asset inspection technologies supporting preventative interventions maintaining wind farm operation at higher generating capacities.

It is proposed to determine feasibility of using flexible plastic based organic photovoltaics (OPV) as an energy harvesting medium, providing extended battery life/ self powering of a combined carbon dioxide/ temperature/ humidity sensor. Application is aimed at use within wireless sensor networks in building control (enhanced indoor air quality & reduction in energy usage through demand control of heating & ventilating systems) and horticultural markets (accelerated plant growth through environmental control). Project aims are operation in building and greenhouse lighting levels, integration with power management systems, extended battery life/ self powering, wireless data transmission, cost effective installation and flexibility of zero maintenance deploy & forget solutions. OPV`s offer potential for a low cost solution with ease of integration. Primary benefit is economic deployment of wireless sensor networks and reduced or eliminated dependency on battery power.