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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Brenac, Thierry; Reigner, Hélène; HERNANDEZ, Frédérique;

    Urban governments tend to pedestrianise the centres of cities or to implement street designs which reduce the amount of cars in the public spaces of these centres: pedestrian areas, reduction of on-street parking, implementation of 'zones de rencontre' (living streets), etc. Prima facie, these policies, which encourage pedestrian mobility to the detriment of automotive mobility, seem to be obviously favourable to the preservation of environment. In France, pedestrianisation is presented by the national authorities as one of the tools contributing to the sustainable development of urban territories. Another hypothesis, however, is that these policies are part of urban marketing strategies of cities engaged in inter-urban competition processes - which lead to increase the value and attractiveness of strategic places in the city and tend to displace problems (and deprived populations) to other parts of the urban territory. Thus, as a whole, these policies would not really contribute to sustainable development. Referring to theoretical frameworks related to the entrepreneurial mutation of urban policies, this paper presents an overview of research and empirical results dealing with the implementation and effects of pedestrianisation or other policies in favour of pedestrians in city centres. As a whole, this material gives some credit to the latter hypothesis. Les gouvernements urbains tendent à piétoniser les centres-villes ou à mettre en oeoeuvre des conceptions de voirie réduisant la quantité d'automobiles dans les espaces publics de ces quartiers centraux : aires piétonnes, réduction du stationnement sur la voirie, aménagement de « zones de rencontre », etc. À première vue, ces politiques, qui assurent la promotion des déplacements à pied au détriment des déplacements motorisés, semblent à l'évidence être favorables à la préservation de l'environnement. La piétonisation est d'ailleurs présentée par l'État comme l'un des instruments contribuant au développement durable des territoires urbains. Cependant, une autre hypothèse est qu'elles participent de stratégies de marketing urbain de villes engagées dans des processus de compétition inter-territoriale - qui conduisent à accroître la valeur et l'attractivité de lieux stratégiques de la ville et tendent à déplacer les problèmes (et les populations défavorisées) vers les autres parties du territoire urbain. Ainsi, globalement, ces politiques n'apporteraient pas de réelle contribution au développement durable. Se référant à des cadres théoriques relatifs à la mutation entrepreneuriale des politiques urbaines, cet article présente un aperçu de recherches et résultats empiriques traitant de la mise en oeoeuvre et des effets d'opérations de piétonisation ou d'autres politiques en faveur des piétons dans les centres-villes. Dans leur ensemble, les éléments rassemblés accréditent plutôt la seconde hypothèse.

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  • Authors: Gouin, Victor;

    The Smart Grids are the combination of electrical networks and new information and communication technologies. They deal with a change of paradigms that are the insertion of distributed generation and the development of new forms of consumption, such as electric vehicles and prosumers. These changes induce many constraints on networks both aging and historically not sized for this context. This thesis studies the impact of these paradigms on the rules for electrical distribution networks planning. A first tool using an adapted simulated annealing algorithm and methods from graph theory was developed to size the networks at low cost, according to the usual rules for planning. Secondly, a methodology combining a Monte Carlo approach and the construction of annual load profiles was proposed to analyze the impact of distributed generation and electric vehicles in an environment subject to uncertainties. The third stage of the work was to implement advanced distribution automations as an alternative to reinforcement, which is very expensive. This part is focused on demand side management. Finally, a new operational planning combining the previous developed tools was created to move towards the planning of the Smart Grids. ; Les réseaux intelligents, ou Smart Grids, résultent de la combinaison des réseaux électriques et des nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication. Ils s'accompagnent de changements de paradigmes comme l'insertion importante de production décentralisée et le développement de nouveaux modes de consommation, comme les véhicules électriques et les « consom'acteurs ». Des contraintes apparaissent ainsi sur des réseaux vieillissants et non dimensionnés pour ces nouveaux usages. Cette thèse étudie l'impact des nouveaux paradigmes sur les techniques de planification des réseaux électriques de distribution. Un premier outil utilisant un algorithme de recuit simulé adapté et des méthodes issues de la théorie des graphes a été développé pour dimensionner les réseaux à moindre coût, selon ...

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Codani, Paul;

    Electric vehicles (EVs) penetration has been rapidly increasing during the last few years. If not managed properly, the charging process of EVs could jeopardize electric grid operations. On the other hand, Grid Integrated Vehicles (GIVs), i.e. vehicles whose charging and discharging patterns are smartly controlled, could turn into valuable assets for the electrical grids as distributed storage units.In this thesis, GIVs are studied from a technical, regulatory, and economics perspectives. First, the general framework for a smart grid integration of EVs is reviewed: application areas and benchmark scenarios are described, the main actors are listed, and the most important challenges are analyzed.Then, the emphasis is put on system wide services, and more particularly on frequency control mechanisms. The regulatory conditions enabling the participation of GIV fleets to this service are studied based on an intensive survey of existing transmission system operator rules. Several economics and technical simulations are performed for various market designs.Then, local grid services are investigated. A representative eco-district is modeled, considering various consumption units and distributed generation. A local energy management system is proposed; it is responsible for controlling the charging / discharging patterns of the GIVs which are located in the district in order to mitigate the overloading conditions of the eco-district transformer. Economic consequences are derived from this technical analysis.At last, some experimental results are presented. They show the behavior of two GIVs, including one with bidirectional capabilities. The experimental proof of concepts confirm the theoretical abilities of GIVs: they are very fast responding units (even considering the complete required IT architecture) and are able to follow grid signals very accurately. Les ventes de Véhicules Électriques (VE) ont fortement augmenté ces dernières années. Si les processus de charge de ces VE ne sont pas gérés de manière intelligente, ils risquent de surcharger les réseaux électriques. Inversement, les VE pourraient représenter une opportunité pour ces réseaux en tant qu'unités de stockage distribuées.Cette thèse se propose d’étudier l’intégration intelligente des véhicules rechargeables dans les réseaux électriques d’un point de vue technique, réglementaire et économique. Dans un premier temps, le cadre général nécessaire au développement de ces solutions est passé en revue : les domaines d’application et scenarios de référence sont décrits, les acteurs principaux listés, et les défis principaux analysés.Ensuite, l’accent est mis sur les services système, et plus particulièrement sur le réglage de fréquence. Les conditions règlementaires permettant la participation d’une flotte de véhicules électriques à ce service sont étudiées à partir d’une revue des règles de gestionnaires de réseau de transport existants. De nombreuses simulations techniques et économiques sont réalisées, pour différentes règles de marché.Les services réseau locaux sont ensuite considères. Un éco-quartier est modélisé : il comprend différentes unités de consommation et des sources de production distribuées. Un gestionnaire énergétique local est proposé : son rôle est de contrôler les taux de charge / décharge des véhicules électriques de l’éco-quartier dans l’objectif de limiter les surcharges subies par le transformateur électrique de l’éco-quartier. Des conséquences économiques sont tirées des résultats techniques.Enfin, des résultats expérimentaux sont présentés. Le comportement de deux VE est analysé, dont un dispose de capacités bidirectionnelles. Les preuves de concept expérimentales confirment les capacités théoriques des véhicules électriques : il s’agit d’unités à temps de réponse très court (même en considérant l’architecture TIC complète) et ils sont capables de réagir à des signaux réseau très précisément.

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      image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Hyper Article en Lig...arrow_drop_down
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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Doudnikoff, Marjorie;

    Atmospheric emissions from shipping was for a long time ignored, but have begun to attract an increasing amount of interest in recent years, with policies elaborated at different levels to reduce air pollutants (sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulate matters) and greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide). Regulated by international law in reference to Annex VI of MARPOL Convention adopted by member states of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), emissions from shipping are also subject to specific measures by the European Union. This thesis aims to answer the following question: can policies to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants from ships alter the supply of maritime liner services? We show how emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants from ships are a complex and unique public policy issue and analyse the policy-making processes that have shaped the development of the various policies. We demonstrate that the specific format of public policy instruments (regionalisation of rules, set objectives with choice of means left to companies, etc.), as well as the articulation of the various policies and their development over time make the consideration of these policies by shipowners truly strategic, in the sense that it goes beyond the traditional compliance with prescriptive security and environmental norms. We then highlight, through two case studies, the possible strategic choices faced by shipowners, both technical and organisational in nature, as well as the consequences of these choices on the supply of maritime liner services: the first case study looks at roro transport in the English Channel while the second examines international container shipping between Europe and Asia. We highlight not only the differing effects of emission reduction policies on short sea shipping and deep-sea shipping markets, but also what they have in common with respect to changes in shipping services. It appears that emission reduction policies favour certain changes in supply in conjunction with other factors but that they do not necessarily trigger such changes Longtemps ignorée, la pollution atmosphérique générée par l'activité de transport maritime fait l'objet depuis quelques années d'une attention accrue. Des politiques de réduction sont élaborées à différents niveaux pour réduire les polluants de l'air (oxyde de soufre, oxyde d'azote, particules) et les gaz à effet de serre (dioxyde de carbone). Règlementée par le droit international en référence à l'Annexe VI de la Convention MARPOL adoptée par les membres de l'Organisation Maritime Internationale, la pollution atmosphérique du transport maritime fait aussi l'objet de mesures spécifiques de la part de l'Union européenne. Notre travail vise à répondre à la problématique suivante : les politiques de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et de polluants de l'air des navires sont-elles de nature à modifier l'offre des services maritimes de lignes régulières ?Nous montrons en quoi les émissions de gaz à effet de serre et de polluants de l'air des navires constituent un « objet » de politique publique complexe et original, et comment l'action publique s'en saisit par une analyse des processus politiques qui ont façonné l'élaboration des différentes politiques. Nous démontrons alors que le format particulier des instruments de politique publique (régionalisation des règles, choix des moyens laissés aux compagnies pour atteindre les objectifs fixés, etc.), l'articulation des différentes politiques entre elles et leur évolution dans le temps rendent la prise en compte de ces politiques par les compagnies maritimes véritablement stratégique, au sens où elle dépasse la simple application des prescriptions traditionnelles normatives en matière de sécurité et d'environnement. Nous mettons ensuite en évidence les choix stratégiques possibles des armateurs, combinant des aspects techniques et organisationnels, et les conséquences de ces choix sur l'offre de services maritimes de lignes régulières, au travers de deux études de cas : la première portant sur le transport roulier transmanche et la seconde sur le transport conteneurisé international entre l'Europe et l'Asie. Nous soulignons ainsi les effets différenciés des politiques de réduction des émissions selon les marchés du cabotage et du long cours, mais aussi leurs points communs en matière d'évolution de l'offre de transport maritime. Il apparaît que les politiques de réduction des émissions du transport maritime favorisent certains changements de l'offre en conjonction avec d'autres facteurs plus qu'elles ne les amorcent réellement

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    Authors: Gouin, Victor;

    The Smart Grids are the combination of electrical networks and new information and communication technologies. They deal with a change of paradigms that are the insertion of distributed generation and the development of new forms of consumption, such as electric vehicles and prosumers. These changes induce many constraints on networks both aging and historically not sized for this context. This thesis studies the impact of these paradigms on the rules for electrical distribution networks planning. A first tool using an adapted simulated annealing algorithm and methods from graph theory was developed to size the networks at low cost, according to the usual rules for planning. Secondly, a methodology combining a Monte Carlo approach and the construction of annual load profiles was proposed to analyze the impact of distributed generation and electric vehicles in an environment subject to uncertainties. The third stage of the work was to implement advanced distribution automations as an alternative to reinforcement, which is very expensive. This part is focused on demand side management. Finally, a new operational planning combining the previous developed tools was created to move towards the planning of the Smart Grids. Les réseaux intelligents, ou Smart Grids, résultent de la combinaison des réseaux électriques et des nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication. Ils s'accompagnent de changements de paradigmes comme l'insertion importante de production décentralisée et le développement de nouveaux modes de consommation, comme les véhicules électriques et les « consom'acteurs ». Des contraintes apparaissent ainsi sur des réseaux vieillissants et non dimensionnés pour ces nouveaux usages. Cette thèse étudie l'impact des nouveaux paradigmes sur les techniques de planification des réseaux électriques de distribution. Un premier outil utilisant un algorithme de recuit simulé adapté et des méthodes issues de la théorie des graphes a été développé pour dimensionner les réseaux à moindre coût, selon les règles usuelles de planification. Dans un second temps, une méthodologie combinant une approche de type Monte Carlo et la construction de profils annuels de charge a été proposée pour analyser l'impact de la production décentralisée et des véhicules électriques dans un contexte soumis à des incertitudes. La troisième étape du travail a été de mettre en place des fonctions avancées de conduite comme alternative aux solutions de renforcement, très coûteuses. Un regard particulier est porté sur les stratégies d'effacement. Enfin, une nouvelle planification opérationnelle combinant les précédents outils développés a été créée afin d'évoluer vers une planification des réseaux intelligents.

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    Authors: Lefèvre, Benoit;

    The following article is an analysis of urban sustainability with reference to the threat of climate change. We will be focusing on urban transport energy consumption since this is the greatest challenge and an area in which policies adopted in the near future will have a crucial impact on long term energy consumption. Based on a critical review of the literature, we will begin with a recapitulation of what is known today of urban transport energy consumption determinants (Part 1). We will be discussing the role of average density and its determinants, the influence of urban structures, defined as the spatial distribution of activities and households, and finally, the structuring effects of successively dominant transport technologies. We will then review recent forms of urban development, which are a source of concern (Part 2, and the pessimistic aspects of this finding (Part 3). We will then consider possible solutions to curb non-sustainable urban developments (Part 4). We will be pleading in favour of urban planning which explicitly integrates interaction between transport and land use. We will then be discussing the set of tools which city planners can make use of, analysing their pertinence and the possible interconnection between transport policies and land use policies capable of redirecting urban growth towards sustainable paths.

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    Article . 2010
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    Authors: Symonides, Janusz; Symonides, Michal;

    International audience; Climate change that is affecting the Arctic more significantly than the rest of the world brings new important opportunities for the Northern Sea Route. If the latter has been the subject of extensive research and expeditions since the 16th century and largely served as national route for the Soviet Union, its usage for international navigation becomes real nowadays. Its development can serve as a major alternative to the traditional channels of shipping through the Suez Canal and the Panama one thanks to the modern evolutions such as the melting ice, the growing exploitation of Arctic energy resources as well as the energy needs of Asian countries with China at the forefront; Le réchauffement climatique qui touche la région arctique de manière plus importante que le reste du monde modifie de manière sensible les opportunités données par la route maritime du Nord. Si cette dernière a fait l’objet de nombreuses recherches et expéditions depuis le XVIe siècle et a largement servi comme route maritime nationale à l’Union soviétique, ce n’est qu’aujourd’hui que son utilisation pour la navigation internationale devient réelle. Son développement peut servir d’alternative majeure aux voies traditionnelles de transport maritime à travers le Canal de Suez et celui de Panama profitant entre autres de la fonte des glaces, de l’exploitation grandissante des ressources énergétiques arctiques ainsi que du besoin énergétique des pays asiatiques avec la Chine au premier plan

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    Authors: Leclerc, Thomas;

    Looking for a global and corrective measure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions frominternational civil aviation has been facing legal obstacles. These obstacles took the form ofconflicts of norms linked to the general challenge of the interactions between international aviationlaw, climate change law and the law of the European Union. Using evolutionary interpretation ofthe Chicago Convention in order to reconcile norms of substantive and institutional nature emergedas the best solution. However, this method perpetuates legal uncertainty and poses the generalchallenge of flexibly and elasticity of the Chicago Convention in response to the climate changechallenge. This study examines the above mentioned issues of interactions between legal ordersand provides recommendations to restore legal certainty needed to ensure sustainable developmentof international civil aviation. More specifically, this study reveals the underestimated relevance ofthe ongoing distinction between the legal regimes of air navigation and air transport, which is a keylegal element in the search for a global and corrective solution to the impact of international civilaviation on climate change.; La recherche d'une mesure mondiale et corrective des émissions de gaz à effet de serreafin de réduire l'impact de l'activité aérienne internationale sur les changements climatiques a étéconfrontée à l'émergence d'obstacles, sous forme de conflits de normes, liés au défi général del'interaction entre le droit international de l'aviation civile, le droit international des changementsclimatiques et le droit de l'Union européenne. La conciliation des normes matérielles etinstitutionnelles concernées, sur la base d'une interprétation évolutive de la convention de Chicago,est alors apparue comme l'unique solution pour remédier aux situations conflictuelles constatées.Le recours à cette démarche interprétative maintient néanmoins un climat d'insécurité juridique etpose la question des limites à l'adaptation du droit international de l'aviation civile au défi d'uneprotection du climat mondial. Ce travail d'analyse vise alors à démontrer qu'un recours à cettedémarche interprétative n'est pas toujours nécessaire et qu'une application rigoureuse de ladistinction intrinsèque au droit international de l'aviation civile séparant le domaine de lanavigation aérienne du domaine du transport aérien international est la clef du problème. Ellepermet en effet de proposer une solution corrective respectueuse des ordres juridiques fonctionnelsconcernés tout en rétablissant un climat de sécurité juridique indispensable au développementsoutenable de l'aviation civile internationale.

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    Authors: Beaude, Olivier;

    This thesis studies the technical and economical interaction between electric vehicles and electrical networks. The recent development of electric mobility leads to the analysis of potential impacts of electric vehicle charging on the electrical networks, but also to the possible support that these particular electric consumers could provide in the future smart grids. In this direction, most of the results given in this thesis also apply to a washing machine, a water-heater, a TV, as soon as these equipments are capable of being smart! When the decisions of flexible electric consumers interact, the considered framework naturally offers a unique exercise area for the tools of game-theory. The interpretation is straightforward when the considered problem is strategic by definition, but these tools allow also shedding light on other aspects: algorithmic coordination, information exchange, etc. The description of the benefits of using game-theory in this context is the aim of this work. This is done according to three aspects. In these three directions, a particular attention is drawn to the case of rectangular charging profiles, which are very practical, but often ignored by the literature. First, algorithmic issues arise when coordinating the charging of electric vehicles in a same area of the electrical network. A charging algorithm is proposed and analyzed. This is done by studying an underlying auxiliary game. This game is proved to belong to the class of potential games under very general physical and economic assumptions. In turn, it inherits from the strong properties of this class of games, namely convergence and an efficiency result in the case of a large number of electric vehicles. Considering information exchange, a model is proposed to design a good communication scheme between an operator of the electrical system and an electric vehicle. Both agents have an interest in exchanging information to schedule optimally the charging profile of the electric vehicle but they do not share the same objective. This framework is closely related to Cheap-talk in game theory and to quantization in signal processing. Amongst others, this work explains interesting connections between both topics. Furthermore, a method, which is used offline, is given to obtain a good communication mechanism between both agents. Finally, game theory is used in its traditional form, studying the strategic interaction when groups of a large number of electric vehicles – seen as fleets – coexist with individual vehicles. This allows the application of the very recent concept of composite games. In the three parts of the work, simulations are conducted in a French realistic distribution network, which could be the first part of the electrical system severely impacted by a non-coordinated charging. This highlights the robustness of rectangular charging profiles against forecasting errors on the parameters of the models. Cette thèse étudie l'interaction technico-économique entre véhicules électriques et réseaux d'électricité. Le développement récent de la mobilité électrique invite en effet à analyser les impacts potentiels de la recharge de ces véhicules sur les réseaux électriques, mais aussi le soutien que ceux-ci pourraient apporter dans les réseaux du futur. Ce travail s'inscrit résolument dans le cadre des réseaux d'électricité intelligents ; la plupart des résultats de cette thèse s'appliquent tout aussi bien à un lave-linge, un chauffe-eau, une télévision tant que l'on leur prête la capacité d'intelligence ! Dès lors que les décisions des consommateurs électriques flexibles interagissent, ce cadre d'étude offre un terrain de jeu propice aux outils de théorie des jeux. Ceux-ci ont un apport direct lorsque le problème considéré a un fondement stratégique, mais leur application permet aussi de proposer des solutions sur des aspects où la théorie des jeux n'est pas forcément attendue : algorithmique, dans l'échange d'information entre acteurs, etc. La description de cet apport est l'objet principal de ce travail de thèse et se décompose en trois parties. En fil rouge, le cas des profils de charge rectangulaires – soutenus par de nombreux arguments pratiques mais souvent délaissés par les chercheurs – est analysé. En premier lieu, des questions algorithmiques se posent pour coordonner la charge de véhicules électriques dans un même périmètre du système électrique. Proposant et étudiant un algorithme de coordination, il est montré comment les propriétés fondamentales de celui-ci - sa convergence, l'efficacité de ses points de convergence – peuvent être déduite d'un jeu auxiliaire sous-jacent. L'analyse de ce jeu est faite en montrant qu'il appartient à la classe des jeux de potentiel, sous des hypothèses physiques et économiques très générales. Sur le plan de l'échange d'information, un modèle est proposé pour réfléchir à la bonne communication entre un opérateur du réseau et un véhicule. Ces deux agents ont intérêt à communiquer pour planifier la charge intelligente du véhicule électrique, mais ont des objectifs distincts. Ce cadre est très proche du Cheap-talk en théorie des jeux, mais aussi de la problématique de la quantification en traitement du signal. Ce travail tisse au passage des liens entre ces sujets. Il propose aussi une méthode pour que l'agent du réseau et le véhicule s'accordent hors-ligne sur un bon mécanisme d'échange d'information. Enfin, la théorie des jeux est appliquée dans un cadre plus habituel, pour analyser le jeu des acteurs. Ceci est fait quand des ensembles de véhicules de taille importante, vus comme des flottes, cohabitent avec des véhicules individuels. Ceci offre un terrain de jeu applicatif aux outils très récents des jeux composites. Dans ces trois directions de recherche, des simulations sont effectuées dans le cadre d'un réseau de distribution d'électricité, maille du système électrique qui pourrait vivre des impacts significatifs si la charge est non-coordonnée. En particulier, elles montrent la robustesse des méthodes proposées face aux incertitudes sur les données lorsque des profils de charge rectangulaires sont considérés.

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    Authors: Montagne, Delphine;

    National audience Bilan du projet Décisif qui a permis de cartographier la transition écologique et environnementale sur l'agglomération de Pau. Le projet présente l'originalité d'avoir été construit entièrement autour d'un commun, OpenStreetMap.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Brenac, Thierry; Reigner, Hélène; HERNANDEZ, Frédérique;

    Urban governments tend to pedestrianise the centres of cities or to implement street designs which reduce the amount of cars in the public spaces of these centres: pedestrian areas, reduction of on-street parking, implementation of 'zones de rencontre' (living streets), etc. Prima facie, these policies, which encourage pedestrian mobility to the detriment of automotive mobility, seem to be obviously favourable to the preservation of environment. In France, pedestrianisation is presented by the national authorities as one of the tools contributing to the sustainable development of urban territories. Another hypothesis, however, is that these policies are part of urban marketing strategies of cities engaged in inter-urban competition processes - which lead to increase the value and attractiveness of strategic places in the city and tend to displace problems (and deprived populations) to other parts of the urban territory. Thus, as a whole, these policies would not really contribute to sustainable development. Referring to theoretical frameworks related to the entrepreneurial mutation of urban policies, this paper presents an overview of research and empirical results dealing with the implementation and effects of pedestrianisation or other policies in favour of pedestrians in city centres. As a whole, this material gives some credit to the latter hypothesis. Les gouvernements urbains tendent à piétoniser les centres-villes ou à mettre en oeoeuvre des conceptions de voirie réduisant la quantité d'automobiles dans les espaces publics de ces quartiers centraux : aires piétonnes, réduction du stationnement sur la voirie, aménagement de « zones de rencontre », etc. À première vue, ces politiques, qui assurent la promotion des déplacements à pied au détriment des déplacements motorisés, semblent à l'évidence être favorables à la préservation de l'environnement. La piétonisation est d'ailleurs présentée par l'État comme l'un des instruments contribuant au développement durable des territoires urbains. Cependant, une autre hypothèse est qu'elles participent de stratégies de marketing urbain de villes engagées dans des processus de compétition inter-territoriale - qui conduisent à accroître la valeur et l'attractivité de lieux stratégiques de la ville et tendent à déplacer les problèmes (et les populations défavorisées) vers les autres parties du territoire urbain. Ainsi, globalement, ces politiques n'apporteraient pas de réelle contribution au développement durable. Se référant à des cadres théoriques relatifs à la mutation entrepreneuriale des politiques urbaines, cet article présente un aperçu de recherches et résultats empiriques traitant de la mise en oeoeuvre et des effets d'opérations de piétonisation ou d'autres politiques en faveur des piétons dans les centres-villes. Dans leur ensemble, les éléments rassemblés accréditent plutôt la seconde hypothèse.

    image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/ Hyper Article en Lig...arrow_drop_down
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  • Authors: Gouin, Victor;

    The Smart Grids are the combination of electrical networks and new information and communication technologies. They deal with a change of paradigms that are the insertion of distributed generation and the development of new forms of consumption, such as electric vehicles and prosumers. These changes induce many constraints on networks both aging and historically not sized for this context. This thesis studies the impact of these paradigms on the rules for electrical distribution networks planning. A first tool using an adapted simulated annealing algorithm and methods from graph theory was developed to size the networks at low cost, according to the usual rules for planning. Secondly, a methodology combining a Monte Carlo approach and the construction of annual load profiles was proposed to analyze the impact of distributed generation and electric vehicles in an environment subject to uncertainties. The third stage of the work was to implement advanced distribution automations as an alternative to reinforcement, which is very expensive. This part is focused on demand side management. Finally, a new operational planning combining the previous developed tools was created to move towards the planning of the Smart Grids. ; Les réseaux intelligents, ou Smart Grids, résultent de la combinaison des réseaux électriques et des nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication. Ils s'accompagnent de changements de paradigmes comme l'insertion importante de production décentralisée et le développement de nouveaux modes de consommation, comme les véhicules électriques et les « consom'acteurs ». Des contraintes apparaissent ainsi sur des réseaux vieillissants et non dimensionnés pour ces nouveaux usages. Cette thèse étudie l'impact des nouveaux paradigmes sur les techniques de planification des réseaux électriques de distribution. Un premier outil utilisant un algorithme de recuit simulé adapté et des méthodes issues de la théorie des graphes a été développé pour dimensionner les réseaux à moindre coût, selon ...

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Codani, Paul;

    Electric vehicles (EVs) penetration has been rapidly increasing during the last few years. If not managed properly, the charging process of EVs could jeopardize electric grid operations. On the other hand, Grid Integrated Vehicles (GIVs), i.e. vehicles whose charging and discharging patterns are smartly controlled, could turn into valuable assets for the electrical grids as distributed storage units.In this thesis, GIVs are studied from a technical, regulatory, and economics perspectives. First, the general framework for a smart grid integration of EVs is reviewed: application areas and benchmark scenarios are described, the main actors are listed, and the most important challenges are analyzed.Then, the emphasis is put on system wide services, and more particularly on frequency control mechanisms. The regulatory conditions enabling the participation of GIV fleets to this service are studied based on an intensive survey of existing transmission system operator rules. Several economics and technical simulations are performed for various market designs.Then, local grid services are investigated. A representative eco-district is modeled, considering various consumption units and distributed generation. A local energy management system is proposed; it is responsible for controlling the charging / discharging patterns of the GIVs which are located in the district in order to mitigate the overloading conditions of the eco-district transformer. Economic consequences are derived from this technical analysis.At last, some experimental results are presented. They show the behavior of two GIVs, including one with bidirectional capabilities. The experimental proof of concepts confirm the theoretical abilities of GIVs: they are very fast responding units (even considering the complete required IT architecture) and are able to follow grid signals very accurately. Les ventes de Véhicules Électriques (VE) ont fortement augmenté ces dernières années. Si les processus de charge de ces VE ne sont pas gérés de manière intelligente, ils risquent de surcharger les réseaux électriques. Inversement, les VE pourraient représenter une opportunité pour ces réseaux en tant qu'unités de stockage distribuées.Cette thèse se propose d’étudier l’intégration intelligente des véhicules rechargeables dans les réseaux électriques d’un point de vue technique, réglementaire et économique. Dans un premier temps, le cadre général nécessaire au développement de ces solutions est passé en revue : les domaines d’application et scenarios de référence sont décrits, les acteurs principaux listés, et les défis principaux analysés.Ensuite, l’accent est mis sur les services système, et plus particulièrement sur le réglage de fréquence. Les conditions règlementaires permettant la participation d’une flotte de véhicules électriques à ce service sont étudiées à partir d’une revue des règles de gestionnaires de réseau de transport existants. De nombreuses simulations techniques et économiques sont réalisées, pour différentes règles de marché.Les services réseau locaux sont ensuite considères. Un éco-quartier est modélisé : il comprend différentes unités de consommation et des sources de production distribuées. Un gestionnaire énergétique local est proposé : son rôle est de contrôler les taux de charge / décharge des véhicules électriques de l’éco-quartier dans l’objectif de limiter les surcharges subies par le transformateur électrique de l’éco-quartier. Des conséquences économiques sont tirées des résultats techniques.Enfin, des résultats expérimentaux sont présentés. Le comportement de deux VE est analysé, dont un dispose de capacités bidirectionnelles. Les preuves de concept expérimentales confirment les capacités théoriques des véhicules électriques : il s’agit d’unités à temps de réponse très court (même en considérant l’architecture TIC complète) et ils sont capables de réagir à des signaux réseau très précisément.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Doudnikoff, Marjorie;

    Atmospheric emissions from shipping was for a long time ignored, but have begun to attract an increasing amount of interest in recent years, with policies elaborated at different levels to reduce air pollutants (sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulate matters) and greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide). Regulated by international law in reference to Annex VI of MARPOL Convention adopted by member states of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), emissions from shipping are also subject to specific measures by the European Union. This thesis aims to answer the following question: can policies to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants from ships alter the supply of maritime liner services? We show how emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants from ships are a complex and unique public policy issue and analyse the policy-making processes that have shaped the development of the various policies. We demonstrate that the specific format of public policy instruments (regionalisation of rules, set objectives with choice of means left to companies, etc.), as well as the articulation of the various policies and their development over time make the consideration of these policies by shipowners truly strategic, in the sense that it goes beyond the traditional compliance with prescriptive security and environmental norms. We then highlight, through two case studies, the possible strategic choices faced by shipowners, both technical and organisational in nature, as well as the consequences of these choices on the supply of maritime liner services: the first case study looks at roro transport in the English Channel while the second examines international container shipping between Europe and Asia. We highlight not only the differing effects of emission reduction policies on short sea shipping and deep-sea shipping markets, but also what they have in common with respect to changes in shipping services. It appears that emission reduction policies favour certain changes in supply in conjunction with other factors but that they do not necessarily trigger such changes Longtemps ignorée, la pollution atmosphérique générée par l'activité de transport maritime fait l'objet depuis quelques années d'une attention accrue. Des politiques de réduction sont élaborées à différents niveaux pour réduire les polluants de l'air (oxyde de soufre, oxyde d'azote, particules) et les gaz à effet de serre (dioxyde de carbone). Règlementée par le droit international en référence à l'Annexe VI de la Convention MARPOL adoptée par les membres de l'Organisation Maritime Internationale, la pollution atmosphérique du transport maritime fait aussi l'objet de mesures spécifiques de la part de l'Union européenne. Notre travail vise à répondre à la problématique suivante : les politiques de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et de polluants de l'air des navires sont-elles de nature à modifier l'offre des services maritimes de lignes régulières ?Nous montrons en quoi les émissions de gaz à effet de serre et de polluants de l'air des navires constituent un « objet » de politique publique complexe et original, et comment l'action publique s'en saisit par une analyse des processus politiques qui ont façonné l'élaboration des différentes politiques. Nous démontrons alors que le format particulier des instruments de politique publique (régionalisation des règles, choix des moyens laissés aux compagnies pour atteindre les objectifs fixés, etc.), l'articulation des différentes politiques entre elles et leur évolution dans le temps rendent la prise en compte de ces politiques par les compagnies maritimes véritablement stratégique, au sens où elle dépasse la simple application des prescriptions traditionnelles normatives en matière de sécurité et d'environnement. Nous mettons ensuite en évidence les choix stratégiques possibles des armateurs, combinant des aspects techniques et organisationnels, et les conséquences de ces choix sur l'offre de services maritimes de lignes régulières, au travers de deux études de cas : la première portant sur le transport roulier transmanche et la seconde sur le transport conteneurisé international entre l'Europe et l'Asie. Nous soulignons ainsi les effets différenciés des politiques de réduction des émissions selon les marchés du cabotage et du long cours, mais aussi leurs points communs en matière d'évolution de l'offre de transport maritime. Il apparaît que les politiques de réduction des émissions du transport maritime favorisent certains changements de l'offre en conjonction avec d'autres facteurs plus qu'elles ne les amorcent réellement

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Gouin, Victor;

    The Smart Grids are the combination of electrical networks and new information and communication technologies. They deal with a change of paradigms that are the insertion of distributed generation and the development of new forms of consumption, such as electric vehicles and prosumers. These changes induce many constraints on networks both aging and historically not sized for this context. This thesis studies the impact of these paradigms on the rules for electrical distribution networks planning. A first tool using an adapted simulated annealing algorithm and methods from graph theory was developed to size the networks at low cost, according to the usual rules for planning. Secondly, a methodology combining a Monte Carlo approach and the construction of annual load profiles was proposed to analyze the impact of distributed generation and electric vehicles in an environment subject to uncertainties. The third stage of the work was to implement advanced distribution automations as an alternative to reinforcement, which is very expensive. This part is focused on demand side management. Finally, a new operational planning combining the previous developed tools was created to move towards the planning of the Smart Grids. Les réseaux intelligents, ou Smart Grids, résultent de la combinaison des réseaux électriques et des nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication. Ils s'accompagnent de changements de paradigmes comme l'insertion importante de production décentralisée et le développement de nouveaux modes de consommation, comme les véhicules électriques et les « consom'acteurs ». Des contraintes apparaissent ainsi sur des réseaux vieillissants et non dimensionnés pour ces nouveaux usages. Cette thèse étudie l'impact des nouveaux paradigmes sur les techniques de planification des réseaux électriques de distribution. Un premier outil utilisant un algorithme de recuit simulé adapté et des méthodes issues de la théorie des graphes a été développé pour dimensionner les réseaux à moindre coût, selon les règles usuelles de planification. Dans un second temps, une méthodologie combinant une approche de type Monte Carlo et la construction de profils annuels de charge a été proposée pour analyser l'impact de la production décentralisée et des véhicules électriques dans un contexte soumis à des incertitudes. La troisième étape du travail a été de mettre en place des fonctions avancées de conduite comme alternative aux solutions de renforcement, très coûteuses. Un regard particulier est porté sur les stratégies d'effacement. Enfin, une nouvelle planification opérationnelle combinant les précédents outils développés a été créée afin d'évoluer vers une planification des réseaux intelligents.

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    Authors: Lefèvre, Benoit;

    The following article is an analysis of urban sustainability with reference to the threat of climate change. We will be focusing on urban transport energy consumption since this is the greatest challenge and an area in which policies adopted in the near future will have a crucial impact on long term energy consumption. Based on a critical review of the literature, we will begin with a recapitulation of what is known today of urban transport energy consumption determinants (Part 1). We will be discussing the role of average density and its determinants, the influence of urban structures, defined as the spatial distribution of activities and households, and finally, the structuring effects of successively dominant transport technologies. We will then review recent forms of urban development, which are a source of concern (Part 2, and the pessimistic aspects of this finding (Part 3). We will then consider possible solutions to curb non-sustainable urban developments (Part 4). We will be pleading in favour of urban planning which explicitly integrates interaction between transport and land use. We will then be discussing the set of tools which city planners can make use of, analysing their pertinence and the possible interconnection between transport policies and land use policies capable of redirecting urban growth towards sustainable paths.

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    Article . 2010
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    Authors: Symonides, Janusz; Symonides, Michal;

    International audience; Climate change that is affecting the Arctic more significantly than the rest of the world brings new important opportunities for the Northern Sea Route. If the latter has been the subject of extensive research and expeditions since the 16th century and largely served as national route for the Soviet Union, its usage for international navigation becomes real nowadays. Its development can serve as a major alternative to the traditional channels of shipping through the Suez Canal and the Panama one thanks to the modern evolutions such as the melting ice, the growing exploitation of Arctic energy resources as well as the energy needs of Asian countries with China at the forefront; Le réchauffement climatique qui touche la région arctique de manière plus importante que le reste du monde modifie de manière sensible les opportunités données par la route maritime du Nord. Si cette dernière a fait l’objet de nombreuses recherches et expéditions depuis le XVIe siècle et a largement servi comme route maritime nationale à l’Union soviétique, ce n’est qu’aujourd’hui que son utilisation pour la navigation internationale devient réelle. Son développement peut servir d’alternative majeure aux voies traditionnelles de transport maritime à travers le Canal de Suez et celui de Panama profitant entre autres de la fonte des glaces, de l’exploitation grandissante des ressources énergétiques arctiques ainsi que du besoin énergétique des pays asiatiques avec la Chine au premier plan

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    Authors: Leclerc, Thomas;

    Looking for a global and corrective measure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions frominternational civil aviation has been facing legal obstacles. These obstacles took the form ofconflicts of norms linked to the general challenge of the interactions between international aviationlaw, climate change law and the law of the European Union. Using evolutionary interpretation ofthe Chicago Convention in order to reconcile norms of substantive and institutional nature emergedas the best solution. However, this method perpetuates legal uncertainty and poses the generalchallenge of flexibly and elasticity of the Chicago Convention in response to the climate changechallenge. This study examines the above mentioned issues of interactions between legal ordersand provides recommendations to restore legal certainty needed to ensure sustainable developmentof international civil aviation. More specifically, this study reveals the underestimated relevance ofthe ongoing distinction between the legal regimes of air navigation and air transport, which is a keylegal element in the search for a global and corrective solution to the impact of international civilaviation on climate change.; La recherche d'une mesure mondiale et corrective des émissions de gaz à effet de serreafin de réduire l'impact de l'activité aérienne internationale sur les changements climatiques a étéconfrontée à l'émergence d'obstacles, sous forme de conflits de normes, liés au défi général del'interaction entre le droit international de l'aviation civile, le droit international des changementsclimatiques et le droit de l'Union européenne. La conciliation des normes matérielles etinstitutionnelles concernées, sur la base d'une interprétation évolutive de la convention de Chicago,est alors apparue comme l'unique solution pour remédier aux situations conflictuelles constatées.Le recours à cette démarche interprétative maintient néanmoins un climat d'insécurité juridique etpose la question des limites à l'adaptation du droit international de l'aviation civile au défi d'uneprotection du climat mondial. Ce travail d'analyse vise alors à démontrer qu'un recours à cettedémarche interprétative n'est pas toujours nécessaire et qu'une application rigoureuse de ladistinction intrinsèque au droit international de l'aviation civile séparant le domaine de lanavigation aérienne du domaine du transport aérien international est la clef du problème. Ellepermet en effet de proposer une solution corrective respectueuse des ordres juridiques fonctionnelsconcernés tout en rétablissant un climat de sécurité juridique indispensable au développementsoutenable de l'aviation civile internationale.

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    Authors: Beaude, Olivier;

    This thesis studies the technical and economical interaction between electric vehicles and electrical networks. The recent development of electric mobility leads to the analysis of potential impacts of electric vehicle charging on the electrical networks, but also to the possible support that these particular electric consumers could provide in the future smart grids. In this direction, most of the results given in this thesis also apply to a washing machine, a water-heater, a TV, as soon as these equipments are capable of being smart! When the decisions of flexible electric consumers interact, the considered framework naturally offers a unique exercise area for the tools of game-theory. The interpretation is straightforward when the considered problem is strategic by definition, but these tools allow also shedding light on other aspects: algorithmic coordination, information exchange, etc. The description of the benefits of using game-theory in this context is the aim of this work. This is done according to three aspects. In these three directions, a particular attention is drawn to the case of rectangular charging profiles, which are very practical, but often ignored by the literature. First, algorithmic issues arise when coordinating the charging of electric vehicles in a same area of the electrical network. A charging algorithm is proposed and analyzed. This is done by studying an underlying auxiliary game. This game is proved to belong to the class of potential games under very general physical and economic assumptions. In turn, it inherits from the strong properties of this class of games, namely convergence and an efficiency result in the case of a large number of electric vehicles. Considering information exchange, a model is proposed to design a good communication scheme between an operator of the electrical system and an electric vehicle. Both agents have an interest in exchanging information to schedule optimally the charging profile of the electric vehicle but they do not share the same objective. This framework is closely related to Cheap-talk in game theory and to quantization in signal processing. Amongst others, this work explains interesting connections between both topics. Furthermore, a method, which is used offline, is given to obtain a good communication mechanism between both agents. Finally, game theory is used in its traditional form, studying the strategic interaction when groups of a large number of electric vehicles – seen as fleets – coexist with individual vehicles. This allows the application of the very recent concept of composite games. In the three parts of the work, simulations are conducted in a French realistic distribution network, which could be the first part of the electrical system severely impacted by a non-coordinated charging. This highlights the robustness of rectangular charging profiles against forecasting errors on the parameters of the models. Cette thèse étudie l'interaction technico-économique entre véhicules électriques et réseaux d'électricité. Le développement récent de la mobilité électrique invite en effet à analyser les impacts potentiels de la recharge de ces véhicules sur les réseaux électriques, mais aussi le soutien que ceux-ci pourraient apporter dans les réseaux du futur. Ce travail s'inscrit résolument dans le cadre des réseaux d'électricité intelligents ; la plupart des résultats de cette thèse s'appliquent tout aussi bien à un lave-linge, un chauffe-eau, une télévision tant que l'on leur prête la capacité d'intelligence ! Dès lors que les décisions des consommateurs électriques flexibles interagissent, ce cadre d'étude offre un terrain de jeu propice aux outils de théorie des jeux. Ceux-ci ont un apport direct lorsque le problème considéré a un fondement stratégique, mais leur application permet aussi de proposer des solutions sur des aspects où la théorie des jeux n'est pas forcément attendue : algorithmique, dans l'échange d'information entre acteurs, etc. La description de cet apport est l'objet principal de ce travail de thèse et se décompose en trois parties. En fil rouge, le cas des profils de charge rectangulaires – soutenus par de nombreux arguments pratiques mais souvent délaissés par les chercheurs – est analysé. En premier lieu, des questions algorithmiques se posent pour coordonner la charge de véhicules électriques dans un même périmètre du système électrique. Proposant et étudiant un algorithme de coordination, il est montré comment les propriétés fondamentales de celui-ci - sa convergence, l'efficacité de ses points de convergence – peuvent être déduite d'un jeu auxiliaire sous-jacent. L'analyse de ce jeu est faite en montrant qu'il appartient à la classe des jeux de potentiel, sous des hypothèses physiques et économiques très générales. Sur le plan de l'échange d'information, un modèle est proposé pour réfléchir à la bonne communication entre un opérateur du réseau et un véhicule. Ces deux agents ont intérêt à communiquer pour planifier la charge intelligente du véhicule électrique, mais ont des objectifs distincts. Ce cadre est très proche du Cheap-talk en théorie des jeux, mais aussi de la problématique de la quantification en traitement du signal. Ce travail tisse au passage des liens entre ces sujets. Il propose aussi une méthode pour que l'agent du réseau et le véhicule s'accordent hors-ligne sur un bon mécanisme d'échange d'information. Enfin, la théorie des jeux est appliquée dans un cadre plus habituel, pour analyser le jeu des acteurs. Ceci est fait quand des ensembles de véhicules de taille importante, vus comme des flottes, cohabitent avec des véhicules individuels. Ceci offre un terrain de jeu applicatif aux outils très récents des jeux composites. Dans ces trois directions de recherche, des simulations sont effectuées dans le cadre d'un réseau de distribution d'électricité, maille du système électrique qui pourrait vivre des impacts significatifs si la charge est non-coordonnée. En particulier, elles montrent la robustesse des méthodes proposées face aux incertitudes sur les données lorsque des profils de charge rectangulaires sont considérés.

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    Authors: Montagne, Delphine;

    National audience Bilan du projet Décisif qui a permis de cartographier la transition écologique et environnementale sur l'agglomération de Pau. Le projet présente l'originalité d'avoir été construit entièrement autour d'un commun, OpenStreetMap.

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