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The atmosphere concentration of CO2 is steadily increasing and causing climate change. To achieve the Paris 1.5 or 2 oC target, negative emissions technologies must be deployed in addition to reducing carbon emissions. The ocean is a large carbon sink but the potential of marine primary producers to contribute to carbon neutrality remains unclear. Here we review the alterations to carbon capture and sequestration of marine primary producers (including traditional ‘blue carbon’ plants, microalgae, and macroalgae) in the Anthropocene, and, for the first time, assess and compare the potential of various marine primary producers to carbon neutrality and climate change mitigation via biogeoengineering approaches. The contributions of marine primary producers to carbon sequestration have been decreasing in the Anthropocene due to the decrease in biomass driven by direct anthropogenic activities and climate change. The potential of blue carbon plants (mangroves, saltmarshes, and seagrasses) is limited by the available areas for their revegetation. Microalgae appear to have a large potential due to their ubiquity but how to enhance their carbon sequestration efficiency is very complex and uncertain. On the other hand, macroalgae can play an essential role in mitigating climate change through extensive offshore cultivation due to higher carbon sequestration capacity and substantial available areas. This approach seems both technically and economically feasible due to the development of offshore aquaculture and a well-established market for macroalgal products. Synthesis and applications: This paper provides new insights and suggests promising directions for utilizing marine primary producers to achieve the Paris temperature target. We propose that macroalgae cultivation can play an essential role in attaining carbon neutrality and climate change mitigation, although its ecological impacts need to be assessed further. To calculate the parameters presented in Table 1, the relevant keywords "mangroves, salt marshes, macroalgae, microalgae, global area, net primary productivity, CO2 sequestration" were searched through the ISI Web of Science and Google Scholar in July 2021. Recent data published after 2010 were collected and used since area and productivity of plants change with decade. For data with limited availability, such as net primary productivity (NPP) of seagrasses and global area and NPP of wild macroalgae, data collection was extended back to 1980. Total NPP and CO2 sequestration for mangroves, salt marshes, seagrasses and wild macroalgae were obtained by the multiplication of area and NPP/CO2 sequestration density and subjected to error propagation analysis. Data were expressed as means ± standard error.

Comprehensive and reliable information on anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gas emissions is required to track progress towards keeping warming well below 2°C as agreed upon in the Paris Agreement. Here we provide a dataset on anthropogenic GHG emissions 1970-2019 with a broad country and sector coverage. We build the dataset from recent releases from the “Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research” (EDGAR) for CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and industry (FFI), CH4 emissions, N2O emissions, and fluorinated gases and use a well-established fast-track method to extend this dataset from 2018 to 2019. We complement this with information on net CO2 emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) from three available bookkeeping models.

Variation in food resources can result in dramatic fluctuations in the body condition of animals dependent on those resources. Decreases in body mass can disrupt patterns of energy allocation and impose stress, thereby altering immune function. In this study we investigated links between changes in body mass of captive cane toads (Rhinella marina), their circulating white blood cell populations, and their performance in immune assays. Captive toads that lost weight over a 3-month period had increased levels of monocytes and heterophils and reduced levels of eosinophils. Basophil and lymphocyte levels were unrelated to changes in mass. Because individuals that lost mass had higher heterophil levels but stable lymphocyte levels, the ratio of these cell types was also higher, partially consistent with a stress response. Phagocytic ability of whole blood was higher in toads that lost mass, due to increased circulating levels of phagocytic cells. Other measures of immune performance were unrelated to mass change. These results highlight the challenges faced by invasive species as they expand their range into novel environments which may impose substantial seasonal changes in food availability that were not present in the native range. Individuals facing energy restrictions may shift their immune function towards more economical and general avenues of combating pathogens.

Project: GCOS Earth Heat Inventory - A study under the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) concerted international effort to update the Earth heat inventory (EHI), and presents an updated international assessment of ocean warming estimates, and new and updated estimates of heat gain in the atmosphere, cryosphere and land over the period from 1960 to present. Summary: The file “GCOS_EHI_1960-2020_Earth_Heat_Inventory_Ocean_Heat_Content_data.nc” contains a consistent long-term Earth system heat inventory over the period 1960-2020. Human-induced atmospheric composition changes cause a radiative imbalance at the top-of-atmosphere which is driving global warming. Understanding the heat gain of the Earth system from this accumulated heat – and particularly how much and where the heat is distributed in the Earth system - is fundamental to understanding how this affects warming oceans, atmosphere and land, rising temperatures and sea level, and loss of grounded and floating ice, which are fundamental concerns for society. This dataset is based on a study under the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) concerted international effort to update the Earth heat inventory published in von Schuckmann et al. (2020), and presents an updated international assessment of ocean warming estimates, and new and updated estimates of heat gain in the atmosphere, cryosphere and land over the period 1960-2020. The dataset also contains estimates for global ocean heat content over 1960-2020 for different depth layers, i.e., 0-300m, 0-700m, 700-2000m, 0-2000m, 2000-bottom, which are described in von Schuckmann et al. (2022). This version includes an update of heat storage of global ocean heat content, where one additional product (Li et al., 2022) had been included to the initial estimate. The Earth heat inventory had been updated accordingly, considering also the update for continental heat content (Cuesta-Valero et al., 2023).

Cyber-physical attacks are the most significant threat facing the utilisation and development of the various smart grid technologies. Among these attacks, false data injection attacks (FDIAs) represent a major category, with a wide variety of types and effects. There has been extensive reporting on FDIAs recently. Several detection algorithms have been developed over the past few years to address this threat. In Chapter 2, this thesis starts by providing a deep analysis of the literature on these algorithms. The concluding remarks of this chapter present the main criteria that should be considered in developing future detection algorithms for FDIAs in different systems of smart grids. Following that, this dissertation proposes FDIA detection algorithms in the major systems in smart grids that are the most susceptible and vulnerable towards FDIAs. In wide-area monitoring systems, being able to promptly differentiate FDIA from normal grid contingencies is crucial for a grid operator to decide the correct response and reduce FDIA false alarms. In Chapter 3, two FDIA characterisation algorithms are developed to address this issue. The automatic generation control (AGC) is paramount in maintaining the stability and operation of power grids. FDIAs are particularly difficult to detect and represent a major threat to AGC systems. Chapter 4 proposes a novel spatio-temporal learning algorithm that can learn the normal dynamics of the power grid with AGC systems. It then utilises this unsupervised learned model in detecting FDIA affecting the AGC system. The utilisation of distributed generation units in power distribution systems has increased the complexity of system monitoring and operation. Numerous information and communication technologies have been adopted recently to overcome the associated challenges, but they have created wide opportunities for energy theft and other types of cyber-physical attacks. Chapter 5 utilises the developed spatio-temporal learning algorithm in Chapter 4 in detecting the various possibilities of FDIA affecting the distribution systems by evaluating the reconstruction error of each measurement sample. The proposed algorithm is data-driven, which makes it resilient against distribution systems’ uncertainties and nonlinearities. The collected results indicate a superior detection performance of the proposed detection algorithms compared to those in the literature.

{"references": ["Kim H., Tadesse Y., Priya S., 2009, Energy Harvesting Technologies,\np3-4", "Curz Joao, 2008, Ocean Wave Energy, p1-4", "Zhu D., Beeby S., 2011, Energy Harvesting Systems, p1-3", "OECD, 2006, Energy Technology perspectives 2006: scenarios &\nstrategies to 2050, Organisation of Economic Cooperation &\nDevelopment, page 229-230.", "Khaligh A. and Onar Omer C., 2008, Energy Harvesting Solar, Wind, and\nOcean Energy Conversion System, pp223-230, pp250.", "Briney A., 2012, Waves - Ocean Waves, viewed at 10th April 2012,\n.", "Berteaux H. O., 1976, Buoy Engineering, The University of Michigan,\nUSA.", "Falnes, J 2007, \u00d4\u00c7\u00ffA review of wave-energy extraction-, ScienceDirect, vol.\n20, pp. 185-201", "Alaska Sea Grant, viewed at 16th April 2012,\n.\n[10] Robinson M. C., 2006, Renewable Energy Technologies for Use on the\nOuter Continental Shelf, National Renewable Energy Laboratory USA,\nviewed at 10th April 2012,\n.\n[11] Behrens, S, Heyward, J, Hemer, M, Osman, P 2011, \u00d4\u00c7\u00ffAssessing the wave\nenergy converter potential for Australian coastal regions-, Renewable\nEnergy, vol. 43, pp. 210-217.\n[12] Herbich, J 2000, Handbook of coastal engineering, Mcgraw-Hill\nprofessional.\n[13] Jefferys ER, 1980, Device characterization. In: Count BM (ed) Power\nfrom sea waves. Academic Press, pp 413-438."]} This paper presents an overview of the Ocean wave kinetic energy harvesting system. Energy harvesting is a concept by which energy is captured, stored, and utilized using various sources by employing interfaces, storage devices, and other units. Ocean wave energy harvesting in which the kinetic and potential energy contained in the natural oscillations of Ocean waves are converted into electric power. The kinetic energy harvesting system could be used for a number of areas. The main applications that we have discussed in this paper are to how generate the energy from Ocean wave energy (kinetic energy) to electric energy that is to eliminate the requirement for continual battery replacement.

Hybrid aircraft are a proposed intermediate step towards full electrification of aircraft. This is an important direction for the aviation industry, in order to play its part in society’s shift away from burning fossil fuels, to prevent exacerbation of their environmental impacts. The exhaust gases of a piston aero-engine have been identified as a significant source of wasted heat that could be exploited to improve the overall efficiency of the powertrain and thereby reduce fuel-burn. This thesis explores the feasibility of harvesting this wasted exhaust heat in a piston-engine, propeller-driven aircraft, from an initial high-level assessment of the possibility of the concept, through to an evaluation of whether an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is a suitable candidate for the harvester that converts the waste heat to a useable mechanical form and finishing with a preliminary sizing analysis to estimate the required hybrid componentry mass and from that, the hybrid aircraft fuel-burn reduction. The hybrid powertrain considered features a downsized ICE, sized to provide enough power for cruise, with a traction battery providing additional power for climb and manoeuvres. A parallel powertrain topology is found to be the most efficient and lightest way to connect the harvester output back to the propeller shaft, and its required electrical componentry is given. The ICE power downsizing factor is introduced as a figure of merit and its upper limit is quantified for any potential harvesting technology characterised by efficiency and mass. The Breguet range equation is adapted for the hybrid powertrain to estimate fuel-burn during cruise. Three benchmark aircraft of varying size and power are used to determine the best use cases for this hybrid powertrain. The maximum allowable mass of the harvester for each aircraft is calculated for a reference mission of 200 km at 5000 ft. The ORC is then modelled and optimised. It is found that its efficiency can be as high as 14.27% which corresponds to a downsizing factor limit of 34.1%. It is calculated that the fuel-burn reduction of the hybrid powertrain has a theoretical upper limit of 12.7 - 14.5% (for a mass-less ORC). The estimated mass of the ORC is then computed, revealing that it falls below the previously calculated maximum allowable mass for all aircraft. However, using this mass, the estimated fuel burn falls to only as high as 4.4%. It is thus concluded that the hybrid powertrain is a feasible method of reducing aircraft fuel-burn, with discussion of further research and development steps.

Anthropogenic climate change poses a significant threat to the planet’s natural ecosystems on which human civilisation depends. Since industrialisation, society has relied on the burning of fossil fuels to supply human settlements with energy. To avoid severe climate change impacts requires: a transformation in the energy supply mix, together with a step-change in energy efficiency of technologies and change in energy consumption behaviours. Yet little is known about the tensions that these necessary changes may provoke. This research is motivated by the need to understand these tensions that arise from action to address sustainable development concerns. Urban consolidation is hypothesised as one form of action which has the potential to address sustainable development concerns through the influence of built environment on energy consumption. For instance, spread-out cities mean energy distribution networks have to cover longer distances (and hence consume more energy), while compacter cities based on high-rise buildings mean fewer opportunities to use solar photovoltaics for energy supply. Research efforts directed towards understanding such tensions place urban planning theory and practice at a crossroads with: a long-standing literature on energy consumption, emerging evidence on society’s transition to renewable energy, and thriving debates on the principles/norms upon which just societies are governed. The tensions which may arise among these domains of inquiry remain under-researched in the scientific literature. The purpose of this thesis is, through a series of related essays, to redress this gap and uncover the tensions between urban life, disadvantage, energy consumption, and the transition to renewable energy for Australian households. To undertake this investigation a number of different data sources are drawn on. This thesis takes advantage of two nation-wide surveys: the Household, Income, and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey, and the Household Energy Consumption Survey. Furthermore, this thesis uses administrative data on the installation of photovoltaics from the Australian Photovoltaic Institute, in addition to several other datasets readily available from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. This data is prepared using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software (ArcGIS 10.4.1) and a statistical software package (Stata/SE 14.2). A range of micro-econometric techniques were applied to reveal new insights. In the main this thesis: (1) highlights the presence of mechanisms in urban areas which can have an impact on the amount of energy consumed and on the number of energy saving actions undertaken; (2) shows the connection between the built environment and fuel poverty and how it may be moderated by financial disadvantage; (3) compiles a unique dataset for feed-in tariff policies throughout Australia’s States and Territories over time; and (4) approximates the short-run and long-run causal impacts of the built environment and feed-in tariffs on solar photovoltaic technology installations. The findings of this thesis draw attention to the more nuanced role of the built environment in energy consumption and the disparity in opportunity that disadvantaged groups confront and their potential to create energy injustice. In this respect, this thesis provides a distinct contribution to the existing stock of knowledge. Moreover, this thesis also informs further research to build on and extend these findings. Finally, this thesis also serves to support energy and land-use policy debates and decisions as they relate to the tensions between urban life, disadvantage, energy consumption, and the transition to renewable energy.

The furious pace of global urbanisation has serious impacts on the long-term sustainability and health of the local communities in which we live. The debate about relationships between population size, environmental management and human well-being must now encompass the fundamental concept of sustainability (Rees, 1992; WCED, 1990; McMichael, 2002; Hancock, 1996). Increasingly, the local municipal level is the most influential setting in which to change our relationship with the environment (Chu, 1994; Chu et al., 2000). In the 1980s, the World Health Organisation (WHO) met this global challenge by advocating healthy public policy and laying foundations for its global Healthy Cities Movement. Significant support developed in the early nineties for participatory health planning action in local government: over 2000 cities world-wide developed municipal public health plans (MPH Plans). The Healthy Cities Movement through regional networks of cities and towns encouraged government partnerships with non-government agencies and industry, to anticipate and mitigate urbanisation’s negative impacts. In Queensland eighteen local governments have developed and implemented MPH Plans using a seven-step process (Chapman and Davey, 1997; WHO (1997b) to improve local planning for health and address the social determinants of health through agency collaboration. There is however limited understanding and evidence of the success factors for the effective implementation of MPH Plans. Studies of the evaluation of Municipal Public Health Planning (MPHP) approaches have focused predominately on the evaluation of the process of planning, without conducting comprehensive evaluation of its implementation. The organisational barriers that contribute to ineffective health-planning implementation have not been well researched and documented. Here lies the gap in the research: MPHP requires thorough qualitative assessment, not only of the planning process, but also the implementation impacts. This research explores the achievements, barriers and success factors associated with MPHP implementation in local government organisations by developing a process and impact evaluation framework and applying it to two MPHP projects in Queensland: one, local planning in an expanding tourist city of over 400,000 people; the second, a regional approach involving two provincial cities with a combined population of 100,000 residents. The research examines the degree of collaboration resulting from health planning and assesses if the aims of the MPH Plans have been met. MPHP is both a health promotion tool and a strategic business planning process applied in local communities: this research seeks to understand more about organisational strategic management issues that act as barriers to planning or impact on the success of planning outcomes. This study design uses qualitative methods with a triangulation approach to analyse and understand the complexities of MPH Plan implementation. Grounded theory provides a methodology for interpreting meanings and discovering themes from the comprehensive process and impact evaluation consisting of preliminary cases studies, key informant interviews, using specific process and impact indicator questions and an analysis of MPHP models compared to other CPHP models and legislative frameworks. The impacts of the intervention are discussed and relate to the implementation effects of MPHP on individuals and organisations including council, government and non-government agencies and on the community. Achievements and barriers associated with MPHP are identified and discussed. Three main factors emerged. Firstly, MPHP had significantly increased the degree of intersectoral collaboration between the agency project partners, with particular success in clarifying the role of agencies in the management and delivery of public health services. The principles of successful partnerships need to be further articulated in local government settings to successfully implement MPHP. Secondly, positive political and organisational support was found to be a critical factor in the success of the planning implementation. Thirdly, and most importantly, the aims of the MPHP had not been substantially met due to a lack of financial and human resources. The study concluded that, although MPHP has strengths and weaknesses compared to other CPHP models, its features most suit local government. Success factors recommended for effective MPHP include formalising collaboration and partnerships and improved agency organisational governance in planning; building individual and organisational capacity to strengthen strategic planning; integrating the many layers of regulatory planning in local government and other agencies; sustaining planning structures and processes through regulation and commitment to investment in implementation stages of MPHP. The study’s major recommendation is that, for MPHP local government should facilitate a three-dimensional platform approach: healthy governance – long-term vision, recognising the many layers of planning, supported by state legislation and local industry and with awareness of legislative planning frameworks; a platform mechanism – sustaining agency networking, hosting the stakeholder forum, supporting the advisory committee, enhancing communication; and strategy implementation – in the context of an improved understanding of organisational behaviour, local government and agencies must action priority strategies, formalising agency partners responsibility, articulating desired outcomes, monitoring progress and evaluation. This recommended Platform Approach to MPHP provides an effective model for managing and implementing future MPH Plans, allocating resources three ways: to build people’s capacity to engage in planning mechanisms, to build organisational capacity to manage planning outcomes and to build more effective Healthy Cities planning approaches. The MPHP evaluation framework developed in this thesis could be used to evaluate other MPHP projects in local governments both in Australia and internationally.