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Trade liberalisation has affected the flow of trade (goods and services) between developed and developing countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin trade theory reveals that under free trade, developing countries would specialise in the production of those goods that are produced by relatively abundant factors of production such as labour and natural resources. Developed countries would specialise in the production of those goods that are produced by human capital and manufactured in capital-intensive activities. Trade openness entails movement of goods produced in one country for either consumption or further processing to other country. Production of those goods is not possible without the effective use of energy. Trade openness affects energy demand via scale effect, technique effect and composite effect. Other things being same, trade openness increases economic activities, thus stimulates domestic production and hence economic growth. A surge in domestic production increases energy demand , which is commonly referred as scale effect. Such scale effect is caused by trade openness. Economic condition of the country and extent of relationship between economic growth and trade openness determine the impact of trade openness on energy consumption [Shahbaz, et al. (2013); Cole (2006)]. Trade openness enables developing economies to import advanced technologies from developed economies. The adoption of advanced technology lowers energy intensity. The use of advanced technologies result in less energy consumption and more output that is usually referred to as technique effect [Arrow (1962)]. Composite effect reveals the shift of production structure from agriculture to industry with the use of energy intensive production techniques. In initial stages of economic development economy is based largely on agriculture sector, thus the use of energy is relatively less. As economy starts shifting from agriculture to industry, the energy consumption increases.

Abstract The concept of a backstop level of electricity intensity 1 is introduced and illustrated for the highest income economies of the world. The backstop level corresponds with the intensity that would be triggered by applying end-use electricity prices equal to the cost price of a fully sustainable electricity supply. Section 1 of the paper discusses the issue of electricity (also energy) intensity of economies. It is argued that identifying a “demand for electricity intensity” bridges the gap between the high willingness to pay for electricity services on the one hand and the disinterested attitude of consumers regarding the invisible and impalpable product electricity on the other hand. Assessment of the demand curve for electricity intensity in a cross section of high income OECD countries comes to a long-run price elasticity of almost −1. Section 2 revives Nordhaus’ concept of backstop supply technologies for weighing three power sources (fossil, nuclear, and renewable sources) in meeting today's criteria of sustainable backstop technology. Only renewable sources meet the main sustainability criteria, but the economic cost of a fully sustainable electricity supply will be elevated. The closing question of Section 3, that is, whether the countries can afford the high cost of backstop electricity supplies, is answered by indicating what reductions in intensity are required to keep the electricity bills stable. The targeted intensity level is called the backstop level, and provides a fixed point for electricity efficiency policies. The analysis supports the call for comprehensive and enduring tax reform policies.

Abstract Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is a thermal power generation cycle with the merit of recovering part or all of the heat that is fatally discarded by such cycles. This merit of higher efficiency is subject of rewarding by public authorities. When the EU enacts CHP promotion in a Directive (1997–2004), crucial measurement and qualification issues remain unsolved. CEN (coordinator of the European Bureaus of Standards) contributes in clarifying the measurement of CHP activities, but shortfalls remain, while CEN bypasses the debate on qualifying CHP performance. This article offers appropriate methods for measuring CHP activities based on design characteristics of the plants. The co-generated electric output is a necessary and sufficient indicator of CHP merit and performance. Regulators can extend this indicator, but should avoid the perverse effects of biased external benchmarking as the EU Directive entails.

As energy issues are at the top of the policy agenda worldwide, policy-makers increasingly need better decision-supporting processes to assist them in fostering a sustainable energy future. This paper reflects on the interpretation of sustainable development, and links these reflections with the theory and practice of impact assessment applied on energy issues. An analysis of existing impact assessment approaches with regard to their contribution to sustainable development leads to a set of principles for ‘sustainability assessment’. Through a study of a participatory impact assessment supporting the development of a radioactive waste management plan in Belgium, the interpretational limits of sustainable development in a nuclear energy context are discussed. This paper sheds light on the complex context in which impact assessment exercises must contribute to sustainable energy development, with a focus on the nuclear energy—(un)sustainability nexus.

In this paper the performance of gel and polymer in fractured core plugs in laboratory is compared. The experimental results show that in a naturally fractured reservoir, the best solution to improve oil recovery should be such that the gel particle sizes are larger than the pore sizes, and the solution viscosity becomes very high after the particles contact with water. If the fracture is wide, the improvement of sweep efficiency by a polymer solution is limited because the polymer solution could flow through the fracture channel. The results in this paper provide us with guidelines to select proper polymers to improve sweep efficiency. Key words: Sweep efficiency; Naturally fractured reservoirs; Polymer solution; Oil recovery