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Abstract This paper examines the effects of foreign trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) on CO 2 emissions in Turkey. We consider linear and nonlinear ARDL models and find significant asymmetric effects of exports, imports and FDI on CO 2 emissions per capita. However, FDI has no statistically significant long-run effects. In the long run, decreases in exports reduce CO 2 emissions per capita but increases in exports have no statistically significant effects. Increases in imports push up CO 2 emissions per capita, while decreases in imports have no long-run effects. On the other hand, CO 2 intensity, which measures CO 2 emissions per unit of energy, is not influenced by exports and imports, nor by FDI. Instead, it is affected positively by financial development and urbanization. Also, we find that an environmental Kuznets curve is present for both CO 2 measures so that increases in real GDP per capita have led to reductions in CO 2 emissions for at least the most recent decade, controlling for other confounding factors. Furthermore, the sectoral shares of CO 2 emissions in total CO 2 emissions change asymmetrically with foreign trade for two of four sectors, with export increases leading to lower CO 2 shares and imports having the opposite effect.

Abstract This paper examines the effects of foreign trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) on CO 2 emissions in Turkey. We consider linear and nonlinear ARDL models and find significant asymmetric effects of exports, imports and FDI on CO 2 emissions per capita. However, FDI has no statistically significant long-run effects. In the long run, decreases in exports reduce CO 2 emissions per capita but increases in exports have no statistically significant effects. Increases in imports push up CO 2 emissions per capita, while decreases in imports have no long-run effects. On the other hand, CO 2 intensity, which measures CO 2 emissions per unit of energy, is not influenced by exports and imports, nor by FDI. Instead, it is affected positively by financial development and urbanization. Also, we find that an environmental Kuznets curve is present for both CO 2 measures so that increases in real GDP per capita have led to reductions in CO 2 emissions for at least the most recent decade, controlling for other confounding factors. Furthermore, the sectoral shares of CO 2 emissions in total CO 2 emissions change asymmetrically with foreign trade for two of four sectors, with export increases leading to lower CO 2 shares and imports having the opposite effect.

Fossil fuel substitution with biomass is one of the measures to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This paper estimates the cost-effectiveness of raising industrial steam and producing materials (i.e. chemicals, polymers) from biomass. We quantify their long-term global potentials in terms of energy saving, CO2 emission reduction, cost and resource availability. Technically, biomass can replace all fossil fuels used for the production of materials and for generating low and medium temperature steam. Cost-effective opportunities exist for steam production from biomass residues and by substitution of high value petrochemicals which would together require more than 20 exajoules (EJ) of biomass worldwide in addition to baseline by 2030. Potentials could double in 2050 and reach 38-45 EJ (25% of the total industrial energy use), with most demand in Asia, other developing countries and economies in transition. The economic potential of using biomass as chemical feedstock is nearly as high as for steam production, indicating its importance. The exploitation of these potentials depends on energy prices and industry's access to biomass supply. Given the increasing competition for biomass from several economic sectors, more resource efficient materials need to be developed while steam production is already attractive due to its high effectiveness for reducing CO2 emissions per unit of biomass.

Fossil fuel substitution with biomass is one of the measures to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This paper estimates the cost-effectiveness of raising industrial steam and producing materials (i.e. chemicals, polymers) from biomass. We quantify their long-term global potentials in terms of energy saving, CO2 emission reduction, cost and resource availability. Technically, biomass can replace all fossil fuels used for the production of materials and for generating low and medium temperature steam. Cost-effective opportunities exist for steam production from biomass residues and by substitution of high value petrochemicals which would together require more than 20 exajoules (EJ) of biomass worldwide in addition to baseline by 2030. Potentials could double in 2050 and reach 38-45 EJ (25% of the total industrial energy use), with most demand in Asia, other developing countries and economies in transition. The economic potential of using biomass as chemical feedstock is nearly as high as for steam production, indicating its importance. The exploitation of these potentials depends on energy prices and industry's access to biomass supply. Given the increasing competition for biomass from several economic sectors, more resource efficient materials need to be developed while steam production is already attractive due to its high effectiveness for reducing CO2 emissions per unit of biomass.

To decarbonise Europe in the post-COP26 era, current policies must be adjusted to account for the cross-border consequences of its consumption pattern. Using consumption-based Kaya identity metrics adjusted for emissions and energy embodied in traded goods and services, this study examines the nexus between technological factors defining energy transition progress, specifically energy and carbon intensities of the consumption mix, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, in a sample of 20 European countries from 1995 to 2019. The empirical steps rely on panel-data estimators that are robust to cross-sectional dependence and allow for heterogeneous slope coefficients. The results show that energy and carbon intensities of the consumption mix have a positive rela tionship with CO2 emissions but a negative relationship with renewable energy consumption. The findings also verify an inverted U-shaped relationship between affluence and CO2 emissions through the energy and carbon intensity metrics. Additional tests show a unidirectional causality from carbon intensity of the energy mix to CO2 emissions and from renewable energy to the carbon intensity. Also, bidirectional causality exists between CO2 emissions and per capita GDP and energy intensity, and between renewable energy and energy intensity. By implication, renewable energy provides the technological path to mitigating consumption-induced emissions in Europe.

To decarbonise Europe in the post-COP26 era, current policies must be adjusted to account for the cross-border consequences of its consumption pattern. Using consumption-based Kaya identity metrics adjusted for emissions and energy embodied in traded goods and services, this study examines the nexus between technological factors defining energy transition progress, specifically energy and carbon intensities of the consumption mix, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, in a sample of 20 European countries from 1995 to 2019. The empirical steps rely on panel-data estimators that are robust to cross-sectional dependence and allow for heterogeneous slope coefficients. The results show that energy and carbon intensities of the consumption mix have a positive rela tionship with CO2 emissions but a negative relationship with renewable energy consumption. The findings also verify an inverted U-shaped relationship between affluence and CO2 emissions through the energy and carbon intensity metrics. Additional tests show a unidirectional causality from carbon intensity of the energy mix to CO2 emissions and from renewable energy to the carbon intensity. Also, bidirectional causality exists between CO2 emissions and per capita GDP and energy intensity, and between renewable energy and energy intensity. By implication, renewable energy provides the technological path to mitigating consumption-induced emissions in Europe.

This article assesses the current technical and economic potential of three bioenergy production systems (cassava ethanol, jatropha oil and fuelwood) in semi-arid and arid regions of eight sub-Saharan African countries. The results indicate that the availability of land for energy production ranges from 2% (1.3 Mha) of the total semi-arid and arid area in South Africa to 21% (12 Mha) in Botswana. Land availability for bioenergy production is restricted mainly by agricultural land use, but also by steep slopes and biodiversity protection. The current total technical potential for the semi-arid and arid regions of the eight countries is calculated to be approximately 300 PJ y−1 for cassava ethanol production, 600 PJ y−1 for jatropha biodiesel or 4000 PJ y−1 for fuelwood. The analysis of economic potentials shows that in many semi-arid regions, cassava ethanol, jatropha oil and fuelwood can compete economically with the reference energy sources. However, fuelwood, jatropha oil, and cassava ethanol production costs in most arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa are often above average national market prices of gasoline, diesel, and fuelwood. Nevertheless, for example, in arid Kenya 270 PJ could be produced annually with fuelwood at production costs of less than 3 US$ GJ−1. Despite high production costs, it is important to investigate and invest in sustainable bioenergy production in semi-arid and arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa because of its potential to drive rural economic and social development.

This article assesses the current technical and economic potential of three bioenergy production systems (cassava ethanol, jatropha oil and fuelwood) in semi-arid and arid regions of eight sub-Saharan African countries. The results indicate that the availability of land for energy production ranges from 2% (1.3 Mha) of the total semi-arid and arid area in South Africa to 21% (12 Mha) in Botswana. Land availability for bioenergy production is restricted mainly by agricultural land use, but also by steep slopes and biodiversity protection. The current total technical potential for the semi-arid and arid regions of the eight countries is calculated to be approximately 300 PJ y−1 for cassava ethanol production, 600 PJ y−1 for jatropha biodiesel or 4000 PJ y−1 for fuelwood. The analysis of economic potentials shows that in many semi-arid regions, cassava ethanol, jatropha oil and fuelwood can compete economically with the reference energy sources. However, fuelwood, jatropha oil, and cassava ethanol production costs in most arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa are often above average national market prices of gasoline, diesel, and fuelwood. Nevertheless, for example, in arid Kenya 270 PJ could be produced annually with fuelwood at production costs of less than 3 US$ GJ−1. Despite high production costs, it is important to investigate and invest in sustainable bioenergy production in semi-arid and arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa because of its potential to drive rural economic and social development.