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Dielectric elastomers are highly promising as functional materials for the rapidly developing field of flexible actuator and generator technology. They offer a unique combination of low densities and large reversible deformations of up to more than 100% in area, and consequently have great potential for many new types of application. However, implementation has been impeded by the lack of specialized materials. The elastomers that have so far been investigated suffer from a number of disadvantages, including the need for very high activation voltages and limited service lifetimes. This thesis describes an investigation of the use of elastomeric composites as dielectric elastomers with the aim of optimizing and improving their performance in actuators. The influence of materials properties on actuation was first analyzed on the basis of a simple physical model and materials properties derived from standard test methods. The implications for the actuation performance of three conventional dielectric elastomers were then considered in detail. A preliminary conclusion was that the actuation performance could be improved if the permittivity of the elastomers were to be increased by modification with ceramic or conductive fillers. However, actuation performance was shown to depend not only on the permittivity, but also on the elastic modulus, the electrical breakdown strength, and strain hardening. Thus, although significant increases in permittivity were achieved by this approach, actuation performance was compromised by an increase in modulus in the case of the ceramic fillers, and a dramatic drop in electrical breakdown strength, in the case of the conducting fillers. A more promising approach was therefore suggested to be the use of an organic conducting filler encapsulated in an insulating matrix. It was demonstrated that it is indeed possible to increase the permittivity of a given elastomer while maintaining a high electrical breakdown strength. Different processing routes were investigated in order to control the dispersion of the filler and tailor performance. The optimum filler concentration, i.e. that providing the best compromise between permittivity and stiffness, was determined to be approximately 16 vol%, resulting in an improvement by a factor of 2 in actuation strain for a given applied voltage over that obtained with the unmodified matrix. Higher filler concentrations were also argued to have considerable potential for use in generators, given that the observed increased permittivity was also associated with high electrical breakdown strengths and increased strains at break. A threefold increase in converted energy per working cycle was predicted for a composite containing 25.5 vol% fillers based on a simplified model for a dielectric elastomer generator. Whilst these results are extremely encouraging, it is concluded that the composite approach has, in general, only limited potential as a means of obtaining further increases in actuation performance. The major difficulty remains that the use of a relatively rigid second phase to increase dielectric performance will inevitably also increase the elastic modulus beyond a certain filler concentration. As argued in the final part of the thesis, the way forward may therefore ultimately depend on the development of new types of synthetic elastomeric matrix materials that combine intrinsic improvements in electrical response with reduced moduli.

Sustainability assessment and rating systems are intended to foster more sustainable design, construction, operation, maintenance and disassembly/deconstruction promoting and making possible a better integration of environment, societal, and cost concerns with other traditional decision criteria. The use of improved and building technologies can contribute considerably to better environmental cycle and then to the sustainability of the constructions. It is widely recognised in the of Building Sustainability Assessment that Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a much preferable method for evaluating the environmental pressure caused by materials, Building assemblies and the whole life-cycle of a building. Nevertheless, LCA tools are not extensively used in building design and most of building sustainability assessment and systems are not comprehensive or consistently LCA-based. Reasons for this failure above all related to the huge variety and amount of material flows and processes of building’s Lifecycle and to the complexity of the stages of a LCA. This paper will present the difficulties and possible solutions to integrate more accurate environmental methods in rating systems. In this context, the paper will also present the work that is being carried out in the development of the Portuguese Building Sustainability Assessment system (SBTool PT)

A new concept of a system for Combined Heat and Power generation is presented. The concept is based on hybrid use of two renewable energy sources, direct solar (thermodynamic solar) and biomass (indirect solar energy). Biomass combustion is conducted using a fluidized bed combustor. A second source of energy, given by the direct irradiation of the bed with a concentrated solar radiation, is integrated in the same system, using the fluidized bed as solar receiver. A Stirling engine converts heat into mechanical power. A Scheffler type mirror is adopted to allow irradiation of the system in a fixed focal point. Advantages of the proposed solution are illustrated and some preliminary results on the performance of the system, obtained with a simple model, are presented. The principal improvements with respect to existing systems of similar size and primary energy source are illustrated. The most important are the enhanced heat transfer processes that are realized with the help of the fluidized bed, and the possibility of continuous cogeneration during the day. Different working conditions are considered to estimate the contribution given by the burning of fuel, in presence as well as in absence of sun irradiation (as during the night). The distribution of energy shares among the different flux contributes is reported versus the amount of biomass burned per unit time. The results clearly demonstrate the advantage of coupling, in the same system, two sources for heat generation, thus maintaining the option of producing electricity without the supply of biomass fuel.

Distributed power generation and cogeneration of heat and power is an attractive way toward a more rational conversion of fossil and bio fuels. Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) – gas turbine (GT) hybrid systems are emerging as the most promising candidates enabling the achievement of a cleaner and more efficient conversion of a large variety of resources across a broad power range covering from small to medium scale applications. This thesis introduces an innovative concept of SOFC-GT hybrid system that allows reaching efficiencies higher than the state of the art while enabling the carbon dioxide separation and avoiding fuel cell pressurisation technical issues. Several hybrid system design alternatives based on this concept are analysed through a thermodynamic optimisation approach combining process modelling, advanced process integration techniques and multi-objective optimisation. A number of optimal hybrid system configurations are determined for different design targets. The results consistently demonstrate the higher energy conversion performance and flexibility enabled with respect to the state of the art. The innovative concept analysis is extended to two applications for which SOFC-GT hybrid cycles are expected to provide the most significant impact toward sustainability: the small scale distributed generation and the conversion of renewable resources. A simplified version of the new hybrid system layout is especially developed for small scale distributed generation, typical of residential building applications (5-10 kWel). Experimental data are used to prove the technical feasibility of the system and to assess the performance potentially achievable with currently feasible technologies. The results of the analysis underline that energy conversion efficiencies higher than traditional centralised power generation can be achieved even at such a small scale. A systematic process integration and optimisation approach is used to assess the energy conversion performance of the original SOFC-GT hybrid cycle fuelled with hydrothermally gasified wet waste biomass. The analysis highlights the considerable potential of the integrated system that allows for converting wet waste biomass into electricity with First Law efficiency higher than 60% while simultaneously enabling the separation of the biogenic carbon dioxide.

Emergency building, devoted to give rapid and effective housing solutions to catastrophic and unexpected events, relies on the basic principles of construction rapidity and reversibility as well as the use of alternative energy sources. The growing need for environmental impact reduction in the building sector represents for temporary housing - especially under emergency conditions - a priority requisite, since, after given time lapses, areas occupied with emergency settlements will have to be recovered to their original use. In this case, the buildings' service life does not correspond to the life cycle of their materials and components; as a consequence, design activities will have to assure the dismantability and reusability of structures for further service cycles, making the whole process reversible: from construction to 'zero waste' de-construction. This paper aims at defining design criteria for low-impact emergency dwellings, assessing at the same time their applicability to corrugated steel pipes, obtained by assembling galvanized curved sheets - commonly used for underpasses and conduits - for which different use possibilities have been investigated. In this view, the research program has led to the definition of modular dwelling solutions. Then, technical feasibility studies have been carried out in collaboration with the industrial sector, taking advantage of consolidated production lines for innovative use purposes. Along the different research stages, a methodology has been defined for the assessment of the fundamental sustainability criteria through different simulation procedures; among these, the evaluation of the life-cycle environmental impacts with SimaPRO software and the 3D modelling for the maximization of the construction/environment integration - also in relation to the use of PV modules - have produced interesting results.

The aim of this report is to demonstrate and evaluate the potential of tall wheatgrass (Elytrigia elongata) to avoid GHG emissions and obtain lower economic costs in marginal areas of Spain. Our research built scenarios based on experimental plots (2 and 3 years growth) in 3 locations of Spain with completely different climate conditions (provinces of Girona, Soria and Palencia). In our experiences, we achieved an adequate establishment and biomass production, and assumed a rank of biomass yields until the end of the life cycle that is usually accepted to be about 15 years in many other studies in United States, Argentina and Eastern Europe where tall wheatgrass is extensively cultivated in marginal areas for sheep livestock production. Using our experimental plots and statistical information for economic inputs costs, we built 5 different scenarios per region considering a large range of biomass yields of tall wheatgrass. The analysis included a comparison with annual grasses economic costs calculated for a wide range of biomass yields of a previous study. We estimated GHG emissions savings for tall wheatgrasses and used our previous study (which had GHG emissions savings as well). Savings were calculated replacing natural gas electricity with electricity from biomass combustion in real power plants in Spain. In a wide range of yields, the results suggest that marginal areas might present a better performance with tall wheatgrass compared to annual winter grasses (cereals whole plant cuttings), thus producing biomass yields with higher GHG savings and lower economic costs at the farm level. Proceedings of the 20th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, 18-22 June 2012, Milan, Italy, pp. 217-229

MILD combustion is a very attractive technology in energy production from diluted gas deriving from bio or thermochemical degradation of biomass for its intrinsic features. An effective use of such a technology for diluted fuel needs a thorough analysis of ignition and oxidation behavior to highlight the potential effects of the different fuel components on the basis of temperature and diluent/oxygen/fuel mixture composition. In this work ignition and oxidation of a model gas surrogating the gaseous fraction of biomass pyrolysis products containing C1-C2 species, CO and CO2 were experimentally and numerically studied in a wide range of temperature and overall composition in presence of large amount of CO2 or H2O. Experimental results showed that such species significantly alter the evolution of the ignition process in dependence on temperature range and mixture composition. Several kinetic models were tested to simulate experimental results. Significant discrepancies occur especially in case of steam dilution. Numerical analyses suggest that such diluents mainly act as third body species at low temperatures, conditioning both radicals production pathways and the relative weight of C1 oxidation/recombination routes, while strongly interact with the H2/O2 high temperature branching mechanisms at high temperatures. Further analyses are mandatory to improve the model ability to reduce the discrepancy between numerical and experimental data obtained in non standard conditions.

The constituent countries of the MENA region---defined in this thesis in conformity with the regional definition of the International Energy Agency and encompassing 17 Muslim countries in North Africa, in the Levant, on the Arabian Peninsula, and Iran---have developed very rapidly over the past decade. Two figures best exemplify the region's tremendous transformation: Total population has expanded by more than 20% and its aggregate economic output has more than doubled. As much as this development is desirable, said development trends have also dramatically reshaped the energy policy environment in the MENA region and began causing problems of their own---affecting the region's large oil exporters and its energy importers alike. Having traditionally enjoyed high energy security and handsome resource rents by virtue of their abundant and cheap fossil fuels, new realities in the domestic energy systems demand a new policy focus on domestic energy issues. Energy challenges have emerged which threaten security of supply, fiscal stability, and environmental integrity. The challenges differ in magnitude from country-to-country and reflect the specific national conditions and circumstances. However, given the similarity in the underlying drivers and the governing energy policies, the energy challenges resemble each other across borders. More specifically, ballooning domestic energy demand consumes a rising share of national energy production and thus increasingly imperils the constant flow of the much needed proceeds from oil and gas exports. In the MENA countries with less abundant hydrocarbon resources, domestic demand growth has heightened energy dependence and, to make matters worse, the tighter supply situation in the energy exporting neighbors may eventually also lead to a discontinuation of the preferential supply agreements which they have benefitted from in the past. As a further corollary of demand growth, massive capital-intensive infrastructure investments are necessary to keep pace with the growth on the demand side. The regional tradition to sell energy commodities domestically at prices non-competitive prices or even below cost, however, limits the national energy sectors' own capability of mustering the required capital. Finally, the universally observable heavily fossil fuel-dominated national energy mixes in the region render the study countries vulnerable to supply shocks. The virtually complete reliance on the regionally available hydrocarbons for meeting energy demand is also a principal contributor to environmental degradation and at the core of the large carbon footprint of energy consumption in MENA countries. Given current policies in combination with the emerging demographic and economic trends, these challenges must be expected to become more severe in the years to come. Rising living standards, especially in the region's expanding urban population, are likely to boost per capita energy consumption. The projected, continued demographic and economic growth will further drive commodity demand. And the supply side cannot be counted on to mitigate the challenges under given policies. On the contrary. Although no reliable production projections are available, it stands to reason that production from the region's most prolific oil and gas fields---some of which have been producing for several decades now---will increasingly require the use of costly secondary and tertiary recovery methods and that some will eventually [...]

Treball Final de Màster Universitari en Estudis Internacionals de Pau, Conflictes i Desenvolupament (Pla de 2013). Codi: SBG120. Curs acadèmic: 2016/2017 The Earth’s resources are limited and it is important that we conserve as much as possible. One way to do this is to recycle waste products. The main objective of this project is to decrease the amount of recyclable garbage that is not being recycled in the city of Castellón de la Plana. With the high number of plastic and glass bottles that are being used in restaurants, pubs, and family homes, a vast majority of these will likely be thrown in the garbage instead of recycling. Although there are a number of areas that allow easy access for recycling, the convenience of tossing something into the garbage is considered more convenient. This project will attempt to look at various options to not only provide enticement for businesses to recycle, but also potentially allow a form of income as an incentive.