WHO and the G20 have identified the growing threats of Anti-Microbial resistance (AMR) as a major concern that will define the future of global health. Despite these urgent calls, the emergence of AMR in settings of war and distress migration has not been systematically explored. Case reports from Syria, Iraq, Libya, Yemen, and Afghanistan have shown the proliferation of AMR in combatants and civilians injured in these protracted conflicts. With regional conflicts spreading across state borders as well as one of the largest global refugee crises in decades, AMR in the context of conflict has come to pose a serious threat both regionally and internationally. So began penicillin in the Second World War: antibiotics arose in war. Today, in the context of long-running military conflicts we see harbingers of the end of antibiotics. The core question underpinning this proposal is how war, particularly weapons and the industrialised, urbanised context of contemporary conflicts, drives antibiotic resistance by contaminating the environment and the human and non-human organisms that live there. So far, there has been no systematic or holistic consideration of the environmental health impacts of contemporary conflicts conducted in cities. Our program draws together scholars working in the fields of medicine, anthropology, history of science, ethics, epidemiology, microbiology, molecular biology, and environmental sciences to examine the specific intersection of antibiotic resistance and war. Rather than focus on antibiotic resistance as a universal problem afflicting modern societies in general, we focus first on the impact of global conflict on antibiotic resistance more holistically, and second on the case of multi-drug resistant Acinetobacer baumanii (MDRAB), initially reported by American military surgeons under the moniker Iraqibacter, and that has been identified recently by the WHO as a "critical pathogen" for research and the development of new antibiotics. We will focus on a number of specific countries - Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Yemen, and Lebanon-places with history of protracted conflicts and with different, yet overlapping, ecologies of war. The potential global health significance of conflict-related heavy metal mediated antimicrobial resistance is enormous and warrants further study. It will contribute to the field of environmental pathways for antimicrobial resistance more broadly as well as informing the specific intersection of war and antibiotic resistance.

The legacy of internal conflict, violence, even genocide poses one of the most intractable obstacles to development in post-conflict states. The on-going lack of resolution of the past is often a very significant factor in the marked fragility of any development gains in such countries. Our project investigates the efficacy of civil society organisations (CSOs, including museums, heritage organizations, community participatory arts and activist groups) in promoting social reconciliation and respect for equality and human rights in the aftermath of conflict in 5 countries from across the DAC list of ODA recipients and from the OECD list of 'fragile states': Colombia, Cambodia, Rwanda, Kosovo and South Africa. Over the last 40 years, these countries have had to confront the material consequences of their violent pasts. Each has a very different relationship to this past, from Colombia, where the processes of reconciliation are only just beginning, to Cambodia where the violence of the Khmer Rouge has passed into history and yet its memory continues to shape contemporary society. The international development community and donor states have invested heavily in the work of CSOs supporting reconciliation initiatives, particularly focussed on children and young people - a disproportionately large part of the population due to the effects of past violence on their parents' generation. This demographic imbalance is often exacerbated by the long-term impact of a wide range of social issues (e.g. HIV/AIDs in South Africa, on-going visa restrictions in Kosovo). CSOs are invariably considered 'an essential component of peace-building work' (Zelizer 2003). For example, the role of community theatre in Rwanda is often cited in efforts to support transitional justice, similarly the growth of inter-ethnic musical groups in post-war Kosovo. Such initiatives can have immediate, therapeutic impact for participants. They are also often considered to play an important role in the building of stable institutions, and stronger societies, raising awareness of human rights in the face of weak state structures. However, given the lack of resources generally available in CSOs and the focus of colleagues in international development on the frontline delivery of services to the communities they support, there is only a weak research evidence base for the efficacy of these interventions. Building on our previous GCRF projects, we will deliver the first large-scale comparative study of CSO practice across a range of post-conflict societies, confronting the challenge of building strong institutions for the delivery of social justice for young people. We will begin by undertaking a critical review of current work by CSOs across these countries, in order to highlight innovative practice, as well as areas that require further investigation. This will lead to 5 'proof of concept' pilot projects, based on lessons learnt from this review. Our initial R&D phase will then lead to the commissioning of 2 rounds of projects, one aimed at ECRs, one at colleagues at all career stages. Adopting quantitative and qualitative, co-production and action-research methodologies, we will work in partnership with researchers at HEIs and IROs across these 5 countries, locally-based CSOs, the British Council (BC) and its in-country network of partners, as well as other international development organisations (including UNICEF, UNESCO, Hope and Homes for Children, Plan International, Salzburg Global Seminar, PAX). We will develop new methods, case studies and practical toolkits, for engaging children and young people with the many ways that violent national pasts continue to impact on their communities and countries. In the process we seek to make a significant intervention both on the ground and at policy level across and beyond our 5 case-study countries.