Over 20 years ago, eight major transitions in evolution that explain the emergence of biological complexity were defined, one of which is the evolution of sociality (or superorganismality). Significant advances have been made in understanding the theory underpinning major evolutionary transitions; however, we lack an integrated understanding of the evolutionary patterns and processes of the major transitions. A novel and timely question is whether major transitions arise via gradual or punctuated evolutionary processes. Distinguishing between these is fundamental to our understanding of biological complexity, the natural world and our own origins. We address this question by formulating new a predictive framework on the molecular processes underpinning major transitions, and testing these predictions empirically using multi-level genomic analyses of sociality in 16 species of bees and wasps. Recent theory on major transitions has extended the concept of the society across levels of biological organization. E.g. genes form a society in protocells, protist cells form a multicellular society, and insects become eusocial superorganisms. A common trait for all societies is the emergence of irreversibly committed phenotypes within the group (e.g. queens and workers in insect colonies; tissue types in multicellular organisms). These analogies are compelling but remain largely conceptual because we do not understand the evolutionary processes by which major transitions (and specifically irreversibility) arise. This is important because the nature of the evolutionary processes shapes the assumptions on which our theoretical understanding is based. Our overarching goal, therefore, is to determine whether the major transition to superorganismality evolved via gradual or punctuated processes, using social insects (the best studied of the major transitions) as a model system. Until very recently, all studies in social insects assumed that superorganisms evolved via the gradual accumulation of many small changes in molecular processes. However, new conceptual work suggests that the major transition may occur via a less gradual process. This idea proposes that, although many insect species display the hallmarks of 'classic' eusociality, they do not express the specific set of traits that indicate a major transition (i.e. mutual dependency; committed (irreversible) castes). Implicit in this is the assumption that the transition requires a step change in phenotypic traits. A recent empirical analysis of the evolution of sociality in wasps implies a similar pattern, with caste commitment appearing suddenly in (and at the origin of) sociality in wasps. These recent studies raise the intriguing question of whether the major transition to superorganismality is an example of punctuated evolution and not a trait that emerges gradually from many, small micro-evolutionary processes. In this Proposal we introduce a new framework for dissecting the evolutionary processes of a major evolutionary transition: we identify putative molecular signatures that are likely to typify a gradual or punctuated route to superorganismality. We propose to test these predictions. First, we will generate appropriate multi-layered genomic datasets for 16 species of bees and wasps that span the transition from solitary individuals to superorganisms: these include new genomes, chromosome mapping, new transcriptomes and proteomes. We will then use these datasets to find out which of the evolutionary routes (gradual or punctuated) best explain the transition to superorganismality. Finally, we will bring together experts who share an interest in major transitions across the spectrum of biological organization to discuss the extent to which there are general molecular signatures on the mechanistic basis of a major transition in evolution. If punctuated evolutionary processes are important in driving major transitions, new types of theoretical models will be required.

A new class of magnetostrictive nanocomposite material based on cobalt ferrite in a metal binder has recently been identified by our collaborators at Iowa State University (ISU) which presents an alternative or strong competitor to so-called giant magnetostrictive material, Terfenol D, or piezoelectric materials for advanced sensor and actuator applications. As part of a recently awarded NSF grant,ISU group plan to minimise the magnetomechanical hysteresis of the new materials by refining composition and processing to alter their nanostructure and to make the enhanced materials available to the Cardiff group. Dynamic domain studies and measurements of the a.c. stress/magnetostrictive properties of the materials will be carried out in Cardiff to help understand the influence of composition and processing needed to identify ways of optimising the magnetomechanical properties. A finite element method (FEM) electromagnetics programme will be developed to incorporate a magnetoelastic model in order to predict dynamic performance of sensors or actuators based on the new materials. Miniature force/ torque sensors and actuators will be designed, produced and evaluated before comparing with best state of art alternatives. In parallel with the assessment of the materials produced by ISU for the project, alternative production of the material in thick film form will be attempted for possible future microsensor and actuator applications,

Discharge of ice from the Antarctic Ice Sheet is dominated by ice-stream flow, but there is no consensus as to what controls the onset and geometry of ice streams or their evolution. Diverse observations clearly indicate the importance of water in affecting flow resistance, both within the icestream margins and at the bed. However, ice-stream models do not yet account for the necessary feedbacks among temperature, water content, and ice deformation to resolve and interrogate these processes. Specific observations highlight processes and knowledge gaps: (i) the basal hydrology of ice streams is responsible for low basal shear stresses that focus stress and strain at ice-stream margins; (ii) strain heating within ice-stream shear margins raises the temperature of the ice to the pressure melting point, causing internal dissipative melting and helping to control the distribution of temperate ice; (iii) interstitial water in ice-stream margins may significantly soften the ice, with poorly known dynamical consequences; (iv) the dependence of ice rheology on water content is itself poorly constrained; (v) the multiphase dynamics of temperate ice, including permeability and drainage rates within ice sheets, are not known; (vi) routing of meltwater to and at the bed is a primary control on ice speed. Without models that address these processes, predictions of the ice sheet's mass balance and sea-level contribution will inevitably be speculative, with incomplete physical grounding. This study will target the dynamics of temperate ice, with the overarching goal of determining its effect on ice streaming. The project will have two components that reinforce each other: laboratory experiments in which an existing rotary device at Iowa State University will be used to study the effect of water content on the rheology and permeability of temperate ice; and development at Oxford University of a two-phase, thermo-mechanical theory for temperate ice flow-with water production, storage, and routing-that will serve at the basis for fully dynamic and multidimensional models of ice-stream motion. Results of the experiments will guide the constitutive rules and parameter ranges considered in the theory, and application of elements of the theory will improve interpretations of the experimental results. The theory and resultant models will predict the coupled distributions of temperate ice, water, stress, deformation, and basal slip that control the evolution of ice-stream speed and geometry.

Nanoscale polyoxometalate clusters are molecules of metal oxide 10,000 times thinner than a human hair (a common metal oxide is rust) and they provide arguably an unrivalled class of molecules displaying a wide range of very interesting physical properties (they can be used as molecular machines to 'help' one molecule turn into another very quickly without waste, they can change colour in light and be used to store information like dyes on a DVD, be used like a battery to store electricity and even as very small magnets). This is because they can be thought of being based on a common set of building blocks, or lego bricks, that can be put together in many ways to build different types of molecular objects in one step. Although these molecules are large and contain many thousands of building blocks, the way they build themselves is not understood and it is not possible to design the molecules using a blueprint or any other plan. Also these molecules are fragile and easily fall apart.In this research we will develop an approach to look at the one step construction of these very large clusters with the aim of working out exactly how they are built. To do this we will need to adopt a number of different styles of detective work, from examining the structure of these molecules by making them more stable by wrapping them in a type of plastic, to trapping the individual lego bricks before they assemble into the nanoscale cluster. We will do this by using a very powerful microscope, by weighing the clusters and building blocks present, and by measuring their molecular fingerprint when we make the clusters. We will also design different plans and test them by trying to predict the shape of the cluster before we make them.Importantly this detective work will be used to go beyond understanding the process but we will aim to use this understanding to produce 'designer' functional materials of nanoscopic dimensions.

Modern cooling is based almost entirely on a compression/expansion refrigeration cycle - a technology more or less unchanged since its invention over a century ago. It is a high-energy demand industry which consumes billions of kWh every year. Yet, modern refrigeration is close to its fundamental performance limit which is well below what is thermodynamically possible. Furthermore, the liquid chemicals used as refrigerants, which eventually escape into the environment, are ozone layer depletive and global warming gases, or hazardous chemicals. Recently magnetic refrigeration has emerged as a promising way for a new and environmentally friendly solid state cooling technology. Prototype magnetic fridges have been demonstrated during the last decade. They have been proven to be much more energy efficient than conventional fridges and can span a broad temperature range around room temperature. But most prototypes use expensive rare earth metals such as gadolinium as the refrigerant and alternatives are urgently required. Several families of promising magnetic materials have been discovered but up to now this process has been a heuristic one. In this proposal we intend to establish an ab-initio quantum materials modeling tool to transform this process and to facilitate its application by groups working with magnetic materials. In the most suitable materials the interactions that underpin the magnetic properties have to be delicately poised and our modeling will need to be able to track and indicate their temperature dependence, how they vary with compositional and structural changes and/or when dopants are added. In a magnetic refrigerant randomly oriented magnetic moments in the material align when a magnetic field is applied making the solid warm up. By removing this heat using a heat transfer fluid, like water or air, and then removing the field allows the magnetic material to lower its temperature. The heat from the object being cooled is then extracted with the heat transfer fluid and the cycle completed. The changes in entropy and temperature that happen when a magnetic field is applied to a material describe the magnetocaloric effect and this proposal will determine it and the magnetic interactions behind it on a quantitative basis. Our results for several classes of materials will be tested against the extensive experimental data available. A particularly novel and ambitious part of the work will be to investigate how to nanostructure a large magnetocaloric effect. To this end we will study some rare earth - transition metal heterostructures and optimise the effect. This physics which produces a strong warming effect when a magnetic field is applied has another intriguing facet. It can explain how some of the most promising materials also change their shape significantly in the presence of a magnetic field. Such magnetoplastic, 'magnetic shape memory' effects have diverse potential technological applications, such as micropumps, sonars and magnetomechanical sensors. We will adapt our theoretical nanostructural modeling to investigate the strengths and anisotropies of the magnetic interactions across a boundary defect in the material and how they lead to the defect itself moving as a magnetic field is applied. A test case of a Ni-Mn-Ga Heusler alloy will be undertaken and the effect will be optimised as the composition of the alloy is varied.