The last fifty years have witnessed tremendous advances in science and technology with a huge impact on society and economy leading to a new information revolution in analogy with the industrial one. Although electronic devices have reached an incredible level of complexity, control and miniaturisation, information processing relies on the same classical principles enunciated by mathematicians in the 1930s (Turing, Church, von Neumann). In the 1980s, visionary ideas from theoretical physicists, including R. P. Feynman and D. Deutsch, and later from computer scientists such as P. Shor, combining concepts from quantum mechanics led to another revolution of information technology: the birth of quantum information theory. In the classical world, a bit, the smallest unit of information, can assume values 0 or 1 corresponding roughly to an electrical circuit being open or closed. In the quantum world, instead, one deals with quantum bits or qubits, embodied for example by an electron spin or a photon polarisation. These qubits can assume the two values 0 and 1 as in the classical case but they can also be prepared in a superposition of the two values simultaneously. This, apparently shocking, property has been verified in numerous experiments and is responsible for the amazing speed-up of certain tasks like integer numbers factorisation with quantum computers, i.e. devices that process qubits in analogy with traditional computers. So far quantum computers have only been realised with a small number of qubits-no more than ten-with trapped ions or neutral atoms, photons but also solid state devices. Large scale quantum computers are therefore expected to be realised only in a few decades. However special purposes quantum computers, called quantum simulators are currently being produced in laboratories working with atoms at temperatures one billionth above the absolute zero (ultracold). Such experiments aim at reproducing, with a controlled environment, the physics of hard to access quantum materials, for example a high-temperature superconductor, thus allowing scientists to probe its properties and test models and theories. A big open question for quantum simulators with ultracold atoms is how, once the sample is prepared in a quantum state, to detect its features. Several techniques are being used based on imaging through a high resolution optical microscope or on scattering of laser light off the sample. In this project we propose the use of a beam of polarised light to probe arrays of neutral atoms. As a consequence of the light-atoms interaction, the light polarisation rotates depending on the state of the atoms. Therefore the outgoing pulse of light, that can be measured, gives information about the state of the atoms. The advantage of this scheme is that one can perform the measurement without destroying the atomic samples as in other proposals. The outcomes of this project will shed light on the intimate structure of the quantum state of many qubits embodied by atoms trapped by electromagnetic fields. For this reason, it is expected to have a strong impact not only in quantum information theory, but also in atomic physics, in statistical mechanics and in the condensed matter physics. Qubits have another peculiarity compared to their classical counterpart: one can correlate the state of one qubit with that of another one in such a way that if one performs a measurement of the two qubits the outcomes always coincide. This phenomenon called entanglement is at the basis of quantum information applications like quantum teleportation. Another goal of this project is a proposal to entangle two of these ultracold atomic samples thus creating entanglement between two separated massive objects composed of hundreds of atoms. The scheme we propose can be implemented in the next generation of experiments with ultracold atoms.

While most materials have an absence of charge carriers at their surface, a number of semiconductors have been discovered which can support a large build up of electrons at the surface. This creates a potential well at the surface of the semiconductor, causing the conduction band states to become quantized into two-dimensional subbands. We will employ high-resolution angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) measurements of these quantized states in the technologically important materials, InAs, InSb, InN, and ZnO, in conjunction with complementary angle integrated photoemission spectroscopy measurements and bulk electrical and optical studies. While often treated in a one-electron picture, solids are immensely complex many-body systems where processes such as electron-electron (e-e) and electron-phonon (e-ph) interactions can lead to a pronounced renormalization of the material's electronic structure, which can prove essential in determining their fundamental properties. Such effects have hitherto been neglected in the study of these quantized electron accumulation layers. Using ARPES, we will perform a detailed characterisation of the many-body processes in these systems, including their dependence on factors such as temperature, the electron density within the quantum well, and the effective mass and Debye temperature of the host material. This feasibility study will not only develop a thorough understanding of quantized semiconductor electron accumulation layers, important for application of these technologically important materials, but also intends to demonstrate their use as model systems for investigating fundamental features of many-body interactions in solids. Consequently, it has implications for understanding the electronic properties of a wide range of solids, including not only semiconductors but also, for example, metals, highly-correlated electron materials and high-Tc superconductors.

Shipping is the largest means of moving freight globally. Ships consume dirty fuels, making them one of the most important sources of anthropogenic aerosol in the marine atmosphere. Aerosols from shipping can affect the climate directly through absorption and scattering of radiation, with an overall cooling effect to the atmosphere. They can also indirectly influence the climate by changing cloud properties, e.g., albedo and lifetime, which further cools the atmosphere. Two key challenges for assessing future climate impact of shipping emission are (i) knowing the status of the present-day aerosol system - as a baseline from which any climate predictions are made and (ii) quantifying the amount of pollutants emitted. Currently little consensus exists on the impact of shipping emissions in the Arctic and North Atlantic Atmosphere (ANAA) primarily due to a lack of observations and insufficient model skills. Recent modelling work suggests that the Arctic aerosol baseline should account for a disparate range of natural sources. Few models are sufficiently comprehensive, and while some models can reproduce aerosol in some Arctic regions, there is evidence that models can produce similar results via different sources and processes. An inability to reflect the aerosol baseline processes can have significant impact on the reliability of future climate projections. Shipping is also undergoing significant changes. In January 2020, a new International Maritime Organisation (IMO) regulation comes into force, which reduces, by more than 80%, the sulphur content in maritime fuel oils. Superimposed on that, recent climate induced changes in Arctic sea ice are opening up new seaways enabling shorter sea passages between key markets. Significant growth in shipping via the North West Passage (NWP) is anticipated in the coming years. Thus, there is a short window of opportunity to define current atmospheric conditions, against which the impact of these changes must be determined. SEANA will take advantage of the above-mentioned opportunity to make multiple atmospheric measurements over multiple platforms to understand the present-day baselines - sources of aerosol particles including the contribution from shipping - and to determine the response of ANAA aerosol to new fuel standards after 2020. Extended measurements will be conducted at two stations adjacent to the NWP enabling the source of particles to be apportioned using receptor modelling approaches. In addition, SEANA will participate in a Korean cruise to the west side of the NWP, and a NERC cruise to the east, to measure both natural and anthropogenic particles and aerosol processes in two contrasting Arctic environments. These new observations will be integrated with recent / ongoing measurements at partner ANAA stations to generate a benchmark dataset on aerosol baseline in ANAA to constrain processes in the UK's leading global aerosol model, ensuring that the model is reproducing the baseline aerosol in the ANAA faithfully. We will then test the models' response to significant reductions in shipping sulphur emissions using observations taken during the transition to low-sulphur fuels in 2020. The revised model, which can reproduce current "baselines" and accurately predict the response of emission changes in the ANAA, will then be used to predict the future impact of shipping on air quality, clouds and radiative forcing under multiple sea-ice and shipping scenarios. SEANA will deliver a major enhancement of UK's national capacity in capturing baseline ANAA aerosol and responses to emission regulations, results of which will inform shipping policy at high-latitudes.

This world-leading Centre for Doctoral Training in Bioenergy will focus on delivering the people to realise the potential of biomass to provide secure, affordable and sustainable low carbon energy in the UK and internationally. Sustainably-sourced bioenergy has the potential to make a major contribution to low carbon pathways in the UK and globally, contributing to the UK's goal of reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050 and the international mitigation target of a maximum 2 degrees Celsius temperature rise. Bioenergy can make a significant contribution to all three energy sectors: electricity, heat and transport, but faces challenges concerning technical performance, cost effectiveness, ensuring that it is sustainably produced and does not adversely impact food security and biodiversity. Bioenergy can also contribute to social and economic development in developing countries, by providing access to modern energy services and creating job opportunities both directly and in the broader economy. Many of the challenges associated with realising the potential of bioenergy have engineering and physical sciences at their core, but transcend traditional discipline boundaries within and beyond engineering. This requires an effective whole systems research training response and given the depth and breadth of the bioenergy challenge, only a CDT will deliver the necessary level of integration. Thus, the graduates from the CDT in Bioenergy will be equipped with the tools and skills to make intelligent and informed, responsible choices about the implementation of bioenergy, and the growing range of social and economic concerns. There is projected to be a large absorptive capacity for trained individuals in bioenergy, far exceeding current supply. A recent report concerning UK job creation in bioenergy sectors concluded that there "may be somewhere in the region of 35-50,000 UK jobs in bioenergy by 2020" (NNFCC report for DECC, 2012). This concerned job creation in electricity production, heat, and anaerobic digestion (AD) applications of biomass. The majority of jobs are expected to be technical, primarily in the engineering and construction sectors during the building and operation of new bioenergy facilities. To help develop and realise the potential of this sector, the CDT will build strategically on our research foundation to deliver world-class doctoral training, based around key areas: [1] Feedstocks, pre-processing and safety; [2] Conversion; [3] Utilisation, emissions and impact; [4] Sustainability and Whole systems. Theme 1 will link feedstocks to conversion options, and Themes 2 and 3 include the core underpinning science and engineering research, together with innovation and application. Theme 4 will underpin this with a thorough understanding of the whole energy system including sustainability, social, economic public and political issues, drawing on world-leading research centres at Leeds. The unique training provision proposed, together with the multidisciplinary supervisory team will ensure that students are equipped to become future leaders, and responsible innovators in the bioenergy sector.

Summary The Rio Summit of 1992 propelled biodiversity into a global spotlight pointing to tremendous human-induced species losses in the Earth's ecosystems. Now there is an urgent need to advance our knowledge on how and why species disappear from ecosystems and the implications of these losses for important goods and services that we rely on (e.g. drinking water, food, spiritual values). One crucial landscape feature thought to have a major influence on biodiversity is connectivity - how connected habitats within the landscape are with one another. A key issue here is alteration of our natural landscapes via the creation of roads, towns and farmland. Under such circumstances natural habitats become isolated and degraded which impedes the dispersal of native species. We believe, based on preliminary evidence, that ease of dispersal across the landscape is a key feature that reduces rates of species loss in human-affected ecosystems thus preserving high biodiversity and valuable (monetary and cultural values) ecosystem services. Lakes are uniquely useful for examining questions about biodiversity, connectivity and ecosystem services as they permit long-term (over centuries) changes in biodiversity to be studied through the analysis of fossil remains in sediment cores. The majority of aquatic organisms (e.g. algae, plants, invertebrates) leave identifiable parts in sediments, which can be dated to reveal a history of ecological change. In the proposed study we will focus on two UK lake districts: the Norfolk Broads, England and the Upper Lough Erne (ULE) lakes, Northern Ireland. Both contain numerous (60+) shallow lakes, have a long history of agricultural pollution (50-100 years) and have been subject to invasions of non-native species (notably zebra mussels). However, the Broads are mostly highly degraded, having generally turbid water with few plants, while the ULE lakes have generally clear waters and abundant and species-rich plant beds. We propose that this key difference relates to elevated connectivity amongst the ULE lakes due to a higher density of linking channels and the occurrence of winter floods which cover much of the system. This, we believe, enhances the exchange of plants and plant seeds, which in turn buffers against permanent plant extinctions in individual lakes, despite pressures from pollution. Through the collation and collection of data on present-day water plant abundance and diversity in many individual lakes in these two systems, analysis of the amounts of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus taken up by plants in these lakes, and by analysing sediment cores to detect changes in aquatic plant diversity and pollution over time, our research will address the following key questions: 1. Does higher connectivity buffer biodiversity loss in the face of pollution and species invasions? 2. How do changes in water plant diversity affect key functions of lake ecosystems that in turn influence the services they provide to humans? 3. Can knowledge gained from questions 1 and 2 be translated into changed conservation practices to reduce biodiversity and ecosystem service losses from aquatic landscapes? Our project will give policy makers and conservation organisations vital information to inform landscape planning, such as the need to prioritise protection of existing high biodiversity areas (e.g. species-rich lakes) and to maintain connectivity of such sites with others. We anticipate generating an evidence-base that will argue for the maintenance or enhancement of connectivity to increase the resilience of our ecosystems to future biodiversity loss. In a world threatened by climate change, habitat fragmentation and pollution, knowledge of the relationships between dispersal, biodiversity and key ecosystem services is essential to our well being.