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Ethanol (1-12 mM) added to the superfusion medium of the isolated brainstem-spinal cords of newborn rats did not affect phrenic activity but significantly reduced hypoglossal activity by 54%, 67% and 55% at 3, 6 and 12 mM, respectively. Although the reasons for the suppression of hypoglossal activity remain unknown, this preparation may be a useful model for determining why cranial motoneurons are more vulnerable than phrenic motoneurons to various agents and, more generally, how ethanol impairs neural function.

The precise mechanisms underlying the memory-blocking properties of ethanol are unknown, in part because ethanol targets a wide array of neurotransmitter receptors and transporters. The aim of this study was to determine whether the memory loss caused by ethanol is mediated, in part, by α5 subunit-containing γ-aminobutyric acid subtype A receptors. These receptors have been implicated in learning and memory processes and are targets for a variety of neurodepressive drugs. Also, since these receptors generate a tonic inhibitory current in hippocampal pyramidal neurons, we examined whether concentrations of ethanol that block memory in vivo increased the tonic current using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in hippocampal neurons. Null mutant mice lacking the α5 subunit (Gabra5-/-) and wild-type mice were equally impaired in contextual fear conditioning by moderate (1mg/kg) and high (1.5mg/kg) doses of ethanol. The higher dose of ethanol also reduced auditory delay fear conditioning to the same extent in the two genotypes. Interestingly, wild-type mice were more sensitive than Gabra5-/- mice to the sedative effects of low (0.5mg/kg) and moderate (1mg/kg) doses of ethanol in the open-field task. Concentrations of ethanol that impaired memory performance in vivo did not increase the amplitude of the tonic current. Together, the results suggest that the α5-subunit containing γ-aminobutyric acid subtype A receptors are not direct targets for positive modulation by ethanol nor do they contribute to ethanol-induced memory loss. In contrast, these receptors may contribute to the sedative properties of ethanol.

Behavioral sensitization to ethanol (EtOH) manifests as a progressive and enduring increase in locomotor activity with repeated drug exposure. However, not all mice sensitize to EtOH and the neuronal mechanisms mediating vulnerability and resistance to EtOH sensitization remain unclear. We examined regional brain expression of the immediate early gene activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc) in order to identify brain areas in which neuroplastic changes may contribute to the development and expression of EtOH sensitization. Male DBA/2J mice received 5 biweekly injections of EtOH (2.2g/kg, i.p.) or saline (SAL). They were categorized as high- (HS) or low-sensitized (LS) on the basis of final locomotor activity scores. In both LS and HS mice sacrificed after the last sensitization injection, Arc expression was decreased throughout the brain in comparison to SAL animals. A similar pattern was seen in mice sacrificed after an EtOH challenge two weeks after the last sensitization injection. However in this cohort, Arc expression was significantly increased in the central amygdala (CeA) in LS mice and in SAL mice receiving EtOH for the first time. No significant increases in Arc expression were seen in brains of sensitized (HS) animals. These results indicate an acute EtOH challenge results in different patterns of Arc expression in brains of LS, HS, and SAL mice. The dramatic increases in Arc expression in the CeA in LS and SAL mice showing little or no behavioral activation suggests that neural activity in this region may serve to inhibit the stimulant effects of EtOH. The observation that HS mice do not show increases in Arc expression with an EtOH challenge suggests the possibility that increased tolerance to the Arc-inducing effects of EtOH may be a factor in behavioral sensitization.

The worldwide decline of ocean fisheries stocks has provided a rapid growth in fish farming and the problems connected to animal welfare in aquaculture gained importance. In this context, we have looked for molecular markers among those genes whose expression could reasonably result modified by the different farming conditions. With this purpose, we have evaluated, in liver and brain of sea basses, grown for 3 months at different biomass density (<10, 80 and 100 kg/m3), the expression of those genes coding for proteins related to stress such as Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs), Metallothioneins (MTs) and Cytochrome P4501A (CYP4501A). In liver, the expression of MT and CYP4501A mRNA resulted induced in animals reared at 80 and 100 kg/m3. Inducible HSP70 appeared significantly over expressed only at the biomass of 100 kg/m3, while apparently, no induction was detectable for HSP90. In brain tissue instead, MT and HSP90 were induced already at 80 kg/m3; CYP4501A and HSP70 were influenced only at the higher population density of 100 kg/m3. In the last three decades, there has been an exponential increase in the interest concerning the description, classification and functional significance of stress-related proteins, in particular HSPs. These proteins represent precious biomarkers to evaluate the welfare conditions when they are still recoverable; detecting their mRNA by PCR is fast, easy and relatively inexpensive. Therefore, we propose this method as a good alternative to monitor fish welfare.

The ethanolic extract from Hemidesmus indicus (Linn) (Apocynaceae) (Hie) was studied for its otoprotective effects in ex vivo rat organotypic model of gentamicin (GM) toxicity. In organ of Corti organotypic cultures (OC), GM can induce a fast dose-dependent apoptosis of hair cells (HC), both external and internal. We found that, after coadministration of GM and Hie to organotypic cultures, the extract was able to significantly counteract this toxic effect on HC, at the concentration of 25 and 50microg/ml. Interestingly, at these concentrations the extract was present in the cell medium at a concentration 1.6- and 3.3-fold lower than GM, suggesting its otoprotective activity could not merely due to an aspecific inhibition of GM entry. To support this hypothesis, we evaluated the amount of GM present in organotypic cultures after the coadministration of 1.5mg/ml GM and Hie, and found no significant reduction of GM uptake in the presence of 100microg/ml Hie. These data suggest the otoprotective action of Hie derives from specific inhibition of the apoptotic routine induced by GM treatment.

Changes in glutathione (GSH) and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) levels and/or redox status have been suggested to mediate the induction of heat shock proteins (HSPs) that follows exposure to oxidizing agents such as ethanol. Here we report the effects of ethanol administration to rats at intracellular levels of GSH, GSSG, HSP70, and protein carbonyls in brain and liver. Following 7 days of ethanol administration, there was a significant decrease in GSH, a significant induction of HSP70, and a significant increase in protein carbonyls in all brain regions studied and in liver. In cortex, striatum, and hippocampus there was a significant correlation between (a) the decrease in GSH, (b) the increase in GSSG, and (c) the decrease in GSH/GSSG ratio and HSP70 levels induced in response to ethanol. These data support the hypothesis that a redox mechanism may be involved in the heat-shock signal pathway responsible for HSP70 induction in the brain.

In utero exposure to ethanol is deleterious to fetal brain development. Children born with the fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) display a number of abnormalities, the most significant of which are central nervous system (CNS) dysfunctions, such as microencephaly and mental retardation. An interaction of ethanol with glial cells, particularly astrocytes, has been suggested to contribute to the developmental neurotoxicity of this alcohol. At low concentrations (10-100 mM) ethanol inhibits the proliferation of astroglial cells in vitro, particularly when stimulated by acetycholine through muscarinic M3 receptors. Of the several signal transduction pathways activated by these receptors in astrocytes or astrocytoma cells, which are involved in mitogenic signaling, only some (e.g. protein kinase C (PKC) zeta, p70S6 kinase) appear to be targeted by ethanol at the same low concentrations which effectively inhibit proliferation. Inhibition of astroglial proliferation by ethanol may contribute to the microencephaly seen in FAS.

Prior research had indicated that moderate maternal ethanol consumption during gestation affected the growth of the corpus callosum and anterior commissure in BALB/c mice when measured at day 19 postconception. Our purpose was to assess whether or not this was an enduring effect. Pregnant BALB/cCRBL mice were fed ethanol 10% v/v in the drinking water from days 5 to 26 postconception. Control animals received an isocaloric sucrose solution and were pair-fed to the experimental animals. An additional control group fed laboratory chow ad libitum was included. Using a split-litter design, brain development was assessed on days 26 and 50 postconception and behavioral development of the pups was measured on day 32. The ethanol-treated offspring had lower brain weights at both ages as well as a smaller cross-sectional area of the anterior commissure on day 50, which was significantly related to the smaller brain weight. There was no apparent effect of ethanol on the area of the corpus callosum at either age. Similarly, behavioral development was not affected by the treatment, although eye-opening was delayed in ethanol-treated animals. Measures of maternal behavior indicated that the animals consuming alcohol were more active than those in the control groups. An unexpected finding was that the control group fed sucrose appeared to be adversely affected. The body weight of these pups was lower, as was the area of the corpus callosum at day 50.