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Currently active suspension system is more applicable than passive for improving the suspension performance, ensuring the stability and passenger safety in modern automotive suspension system. However, high energy consumption is one of the main disadvantages of implementing this system in real applications. In this paper, the energy consumption of electromagnetic actuators used for an active suspension system controlled by proportional-integral-derivative (PID), fuzzy adaptive PID, and neuron adaptive PID are investigated through simulation studies. Based on the energy consumption and the performance analysis, it has found that it is potential to develop a vibration energy recovery system to achieve the energy balance requirement in active suspension systems.

This deliverable includes the methodology in EnergyPROSPECTS for an in-depth study of energy citizenship. It features the criteria used for selecting the cases for indepth study, the list of cases selected for in-depth study as well as key research foci and empirical research questions.

In 2008 the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and its experiments started operation at the European Centre of Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva with the main aim of finding or excluding the Higgs boson. Only four years later, on the 4th of July 2012, the discovery of a Higgs-like particle was proven and first published by the two main experiments ATLAS and CMS. Even though proton–proton collisions are the main operation mode of the LHC, it also acts as an heavy-ion collider. Here, the term “heavy-ion collisions” refers to the collision between fully stripped nuclei. While the major hardware system of the LHC is compatible with heavy-ion operation, the beam dynamics and performance limits of ion beams are quite different from those of protons. Because of the higher mass and charge of the ions, beam dynamic effects like intra-beam scattering and radiation damping are stronger. Also the electromagnetic cross-sections in the collisions are larger, leading to significantly faster intensity decay and thus shorter luminosity lifetimes. As the production cross-sections for various physics processes under study of the experiments are still small at energies reachable with the LHC and because the heavy-ion run time is limited to a few days per year, it is essential to obtain the highest possible collision rate, i.e. maximise the instantaneous luminosity, in order to obtain enough events and therefore low statistical errors. Within this thesis, the past performance of the LHC in lead-lead (Pb-Pb) collisions, at a centre-of-mass energy of 2.76 TeV per colliding nucleon pair, is analysed and potential luminosity limitations are identified. Tools are developed to predict future performance and techniques are presented to further increase the luminosity. Finally, a perspective on the future of high energy heavy-ion colliders is given.

Green ammonia is gaining momentum as a globally significant technology for deep decarbonisation. In this thesis, several models are developed across chemical, techno-economic, and energy system modelling disciplines to explore the future role of green ammonia. First, standalone models of production (i.e., power-to-ammonia) and re-electrification (i.e., ammonia-to-power) are developed and compared to competing technologies. Second, these models are integrated into a planning and dispatch energy system model (ESM) of India to 2050. The ESM has several novel additions including the sector coupling of hydrogen and ammonia, multiple years of granular weather data, and learning-curve-based technology cost forecasts. India is chosen as an ideal case study given its globally unmatched demand growth in all three relevant sectors: electricity, green hydrogen, and green ammonia. The projected electricity demands for green hydrogen and ammonia production account for 25% of the total Indian electricity demand in 2050, underscoring the transformational potential that green hydrogen and ammonia sector coupling can have on the Indian energy system. The results of the state-of-the-art ESM highlight synergistic effects of hydrogen and ammonia sector coupling with the power system. The least-cost system employs seasonal green ammonia production paired with up to 40 million tonnes (i.e., 200 TWh) of ammonia storage, as well as some re-electrification via gas turbines. Sector coupling reduces system curtailment, addresses challenges of long-duration storage, and improves system resilience to interannual weather variations. While India is a crucial case study from a global decarbonisation perspective, the methodology and findings are generally applicable, and it is the aim of this work to motivate and accelerate the wider research community into considering the potential impacts of green ammonia sector coupling on electricity grid design. Finally, this work highlights strategic technology development direction for ammonia producers and gas turbine manufacturers, as well as implications for policymakers.

Der Klimawandel ist eine globale Herausforderung, wobei die geschätzten Kosten für seine Eindämmung zwischen 1,6 und 3,8 Billionen USD pro Jahr liegen. Als Pionier im Bereich des Klimaschutzes verfügt die Europäische Union über das weltweit umfangreichste Emissionshandelssystem (87 % des globalen Wertes von 865 Mrd. USD im Jahr 2022). Die kumulative Dissertation ist in drei Artikel unterteilt und beschäftigt sich mit der Rolle von forstwirtschaftlichen Kohlenstoffgutschriften sowohl auf den Verpflichtungsmärkten als auch auf den freiwilligen Kohlenstoffmärkten. Dabei werden Potenziale für forstwirtschaftliche Investitionen in diesen beiden Märkten untersucht. Im ersten Artikel wird ein Überblick über die Klimastrategie der Europäischen Union gegeben, wobei der Schwerpunkt auf der Entwicklung des EU-Emissionshandelssystems (EU ETS) und der Rolle von Waldkohlenstoffzertifikaten für Kompensationszwecke sowohl in der Europäischen Union als auch international liegt. Wir argumentieren, dass die Europäische Union weiterhin ein beträchtliches Potenzial der Wälder - insbesondere der tropischen Wälder - als natürliche Kohlenstoffsenken ungenutzt lässt. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigen wir auf, dass die Regulierungsbehörden aus den Erfahrungen und Verbesserungen der Vergangenheit, den Sustainable Carbon Cylces der Europäischen Union und der Fertigstellung und Entwicklung des Regelwerks für Artikel 6 des Pariser Abkommens lernen können. Wir unterbreiten einen Vorschlag zur Änderung der EU-ETS-Verordnung, indem wir die kürzlich im Trilog vereinbarte Gesetzgebung der Europäischen Kommission zur Erhöhung des linearen Reduktionsfaktors von 2,2 % auf 4,2 % auf die Anrechenbarkeit von Waldkohlenstoffgutschriften übertragen, was zu einem zusätzlichen Finanzierungspotenzial für Forstprojekte zur Erhöhung der notwendigen Kohlenstoffsenken führt. Gleichzeitig wird durch die Möglichkeit, in begrenztem Umfang in Neutralisierungsprojekte zu investieren, das Risiko gemindert, dass regulierte Unternehmen bei der Erreichung der Emissionsreduktionsziele überfordert werden. Das Überdenken des Status quo erfordert nicht nur eine Stärkung der Robustheit von Kohlenstoffprojekten, sondern kann auch den Widerstand von politischen Entscheidungsträgern und NGOs überwinden. Emissionsgutschriften aus Wäldern sind in den meisten Emissionshandelssystemen von Bedeutung, da sie ein kosteneffizientes Mittel zum Ausgleich von schwer zu kompensierenden Emissionen darstellen. Bislang war dies im Emissionshandelssystem der Europäischen Union (EU ETS) nicht der Fall. Da das Regelwerk des Pariser Abkommens nun fertiggestellt ist, könnte sich jedoch die Gelegenheit bieten, diesen Flexibilitätsmechanismus in der europäischen Klimapolitik wiederzubeleben. Auf der Grundlage von 24 Experteninterviews untersuchten wir im zweiten Artikel das forstwirtschaftliche Potenzial innerhalb des EU-Emissionshandelssystems über kurz-, mittel- und langfristige Zeiträume. Wir kamen zu dem Ergebnis, dass das Erfüllungssystem bis 2030 blockiert bleiben wird, dass aber langfristig ein Übergang zur Einbeziehung von forstbasierten Entnahmen und Reduktionen wahrscheinlicher ist. Obwohl forstwirtschaftliche Projekte in der EU auf große Zurückhaltung stoßen, herrscht Einigkeit darüber, wie wichtig sowohl technologische Lösungen als auch solche Initiativen für den Klimaschutz sind. Um das Potenzial der Forstwirtschaft in Zukunft voll auszuschöpfen, müssen andere Methoden und Instrumente (z. B. Haftungsregelungen), strengere Rechtsvorschriften für sozioökonomische Faktoren (z. B. Landnutzungsrechte), die Überwindung von Umsetzungshürden (z. B. keine Kompromisse bei der Abschreckung durch Abschwächung) und eine offene politische Haltung eingeführt werden. Diese Studie bietet eine umfassende Perspektive auf die Hindernisse und Potenziale von Forstprojekten im Rahmen des Compliance-Systems der EU, die bei der Wiederaufnahme der Diskussion über die künftige Förderfähigkeit unbedingt berücksichtigt werden muss. Die Ergebnisse der Studie legen nahe, die Hindernisse für die Bereitstellung von Emissionsgutschriften in der nächsten Phase des EU-Emissionshandelssystems ab 2030 unverzüglich zu beseitigen. Der freiwillige Kohlenstoffmarkt (Voluntary Carbon Market, VCM) hat in den letzten Jahren ein beispielloses Wachstum erlebt, das durch die Verpflichtungen der Unternehmen begünstigt wurde. Die künftige Entwicklung hängt jedoch von der Strategie des Pariser Abkommens ab, insbesondere von Artikel 6. Daher werden im dritten Artikel die verschiedenen vorgeschlagenen Mechanismen und ihre Auswirkungen auf den VCM analysiert. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist der Bedarf an entsprechenden Anpassungen (CA) und wie sich diese Anforderung auf den VCM auswirkt. Der "neue" Typ von Kohlenstoffgutschriften, der auf der CoP27 eingeführt wurde, nämlich die "Mitigation Contribution A6.4ERs", wird die Konsolidierung des VCM wahrscheinlich beschleunigen. Auf der Grundlage einer halbsystematischen Überprüfung und von Experteninterviews (N = 20) sprechen die derzeitigen kurzfristigen Aussichten (~2030) für ein weiteres Wachstum des VCM, trotz bestehender Unsicherheiten aufgrund der unvollständigen technischen Details des Rahmens. Darüber hinaus halten die meisten Experten den Artikel 6-Rahmen nach intensiven und gründlichen Verhandlungen für erfolgreich. Mittelfristig (~2030-2045) wird es wahrscheinlich zu einem Marktübergang kommen. Dementsprechend wird der VCM seine Nische finden und das gegenwärtig verwendete Ausgleichsinstrument neu bewerten müssen. Diese Neubewertung muss über eine reine Kohlenstoffperspektive hinausgehen und sich auf die Zusatznutzen konzentrieren, um die Legitimität des VCM zu erhalten. Langfristig (~2045) deuten die Ergebnisse auf einen Rückgang des VCM hin, da er möglicherweise mit Compliance-Märkten kombiniert wird. Die Infrastruktur und die Robustheit der Artikel-6-Regelwerke werden jedoch dazu beitragen, das volle Wachstumspotenzial des VCM zu gewährleisten. Climate change is a global challenge, with estimated mitigation costs ranging from USD1.6 to USD3.8 trillion per year. As a pioneer in climate action, the European Union has the most extensive emissions trading system worldwide (87% of the global value of USD865 billion in 2022). The cumulative PhD thesis is divided into three articles dealing with the role of forest carbon credits in both compliance and voluntary carbon markets as well as investigating further potentials for forest investments in both of these markets. In the first article, we review the European Union's climate strategy, emphasizing the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) development, and the role of forest carbon credits for offsetting purposes, both in the European Union but also internationally. We argue that the European Union continues to leave a significant potential of forests - in particular tropical forests - as natural carbon sinks unattended. In contrast, we reveal that the regulators can learn from the experiences and improvements made in the past, the European Union’s Sustainable Carbon Cylces and the finalization and development of the rulebook for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. We present a proposal on changes to the EU ETS regulation by converting the European Commission's legislation, recently agreed in the trilogue, to increase the linear reduction factor from 2.2% to 4.2% to the eligibility of forest carbon credits, resulting in additional funding potential for forestry projects to increase necessary carbon sinks. Simultaneously, allowing flexibility of investing to a limited extent in neutralization projects mitigates the risk of overstressing regulated companies to reach the emission reduction targets. The re-thinking of the status quo will not only require strengthening the robustness of carbon projects, but may also overcome the resistance of policy makers and NGOs. Forest-based carbon credits are crucial in most Emissions Trading Schemes as they offer a cost-efficient means of offsetting hard-to-abate emissions. To date, this has not been the case in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). However with the Paris Agreement rulebook now finalized, there could be an opportunity to revive this flexibility mechanism in European climate policy. Based on 24 expert interviews, we examined in the second article the forest potential within the EU ETS across short, medium, and long-term time frames. We found that the compliance system will remain blocked until 2030, but there is a greater likelihood of transitioning towards the inclusion of forest-based removals and reductions in the long term. Although forestry projects have faced significant reluctance in the EU, there is unanimous agreement on the importance of both technological solutions and such initiatives for climate protection. To fully leverage the potential of forest activity in the future, it will be necessary to adopt different methods and tools (e.g., liability regimes), stricter legislation on socio-economic factors (e.g., land use rights), overcoming implementation hurdles (e.g., do not compromise deterrence through mitigation), and maintaining an open political stance. This study provides a comprehensive perspective on the barriers and potentials of forestry projects within the compliance system of the EU which is essential to be addressed when re-opening the discussion on future eligibility. The implication of the findings suggest an immediate start to adopt to the barriers for carbon credit readiness in the next phase of the EU ETS beginning of 2030. The voluntary carbon market (VCM) has seen unprecedented growth over the past years, facilitated by corporate commitments. However, future development depends on the Paris Agreement strategy, in particular, Article 6. Therefore, the third article analyzes the various mechanisms suggested and their implications on the VCM. Of particular importance is the need for corresponding adjustments (CA) and how this requirement spills over to the VCM. The “new” type of carbon credits introduced during CoP27, that is, the “mitigation contribution A6.4ERs” will likely accelerate the consolidation of the VCM. Based on a semi-systematic review and expert interviews (N = 20), the current short-term (~2030) prospects support further growth of the VCM despite existing uncertainties caused by the incomplete technical details of the framework. Moreover, after intense and thorough negotiation, most experts deemed the Article 6 framework successful. In the mid-term (~2030-2045), a market transition will likely occur. Accordingly, the VCM will need to find its niche and reassess the current compensation tool used. This reassessment must go beyond a mere carbon perspective and focus on co-benefits to prolong the legitimacy of the VCM. Long-term (~2045) results indicate a decline in the VCM as it potentially combines with compliance markets. However, the infrastructure and robustness of Article 6 rulesets will help to ensure the full growth potential of the VCM.

Measurements: Rainfall - Total monthly rainfall including all precipitation (snow, rain, mist and fog) captured in a 12.7 cm rain gauge (mm per month); numbers of days with rain (0.2mm or more); the day with the maximum daily rainfall for that month. Sun shine: the total hours of sunshine recorded for the month; the day with most hours of sunshine; days when no sunshine recorded. Air temperature: the average maximum and average minimum air temperature (degrees C) for the month; the warmest day; the coldest day for the month. Frost: Numbers of air or ground frosts. The average refers to the 30-year mean 1981-2010. The summary report is derived from daily data measured at Rothamsted Research. Teses original raw data are available from the e-RA database. Daily data verification includes checks for instrument errors, missing data and outliers. These weather summaries are reported in the local Harpenden press on a monthly basis. Monthly and summaries and annual summary of rainfall, temperature, sun hours and numbers of ground frosts for 2013. Variation noted in comparison to 30-year means 1981-2010. This report consists of the monthly and annual summaries of meteorological data measured at Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, UK, from January 2013 until December 2013. Daily measurements are taken at Rothamsted Meteorological Station. These data are summarised monthly and annually as a report.

The use of microalgae culture to convert CO2 from power plant flue gases into biomass that are readily converted into biofuels offers a new frame of opportunities to enhance, compliment or replace fossil-fuel-use. Apart from being renewable, microalgae also have the capacity to utilise materials from a variety of wastewater and the ability to yield both liquid and gaseous biofuels. However, the processes of cultivation, incorporation of a production system for power plant waste flue gas use, algae harvesting, and oil extraction from the biomass have many challenges. Using SimaPro software, Life cycle Assessment (LCA) of the challenges limiting the microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris) biofuel production process was performed to study algae-based pathway for producing biofuels. Attention was paid to material use, energy consumed and the environmental burdens associated with the production processes. The goal was to determine the weak spots within the production system and identify changes in particular data-set that can lead to and lower material use, energy consumption and lower environmental impacts than the baseline microalgae biofuel production system. The analysis considered a hypothetical transesterification and Anaerobic Digestion (AD) transformation of algae-to- biofuel process. Life cycle Inventory (LCI) characterisation results of the baseline biodiesel (BD) transesterification scenario indicates that heating to get the biomass to 90% DWB accounts for 64% of the total input energy, while electrical energy and fertilizer obligations represents 19% and 16% respectively. Also, Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) results of the baseline BD production scenario show high proportional contribution of electricity and heat energy obligations for most impact categories considered relative to other resources. This is attributed to the concentration/drying requirement of algae biomass in order to ease downstream processes of lipid extraction and subsequent transesterification of extracted lipids into BD. Thus, four prospective alternative production scenarios were successfully characterised to evaluate the extent of their impact scenarios on the production system with regards to lowering material use, lower energy consumption and lower environmental burdens than the standard algae biofuel production system. A 55.3% reduction in mineral use obligation was evaluated as the most significant impact reduction due to the integration of 100% recycling of production harvest water for the AD production system. Recycling also saw water demand reduced from 3726 kg (freshwater).kgBD- 1 to 591kg (freshwater).kgBD- 1 after accounting for evaporative losses/biomass drying for the BD transesterification production process. Also, the use of wastewater/sea water as alternative growth media for the BD production system, indicated potential savings of: 4.2 MJ (11.8%) in electricity/heat obligation, 10.7% reductions for climate change impact, and 87% offset in mineral use requirement relative to the baseline production system. Likewise, LCIA characterisation comparison results comparing the baseline production scenarios with that of a set-up with co-product economic allocation consideration show very interesting outcomes. Indicating -12 MJ surplus (-33%) reductions for fossil fuels resource use impact category, 52.7% impact reductions for mineral use impact and 56.6% reductions for land use impact categories relative to the baseline BD production process model. These results show the importance of allocation consideration to LCA as a decision support tool. Overall, process improvements that are needed to optimise economic viability also improve the life cycle environmental impacts or sustainability of the production systems. Results obtained have been observed to agree reasonably with Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis, with the production scenario proposing the exploitation of wastewater/sea water to culture algae biomass offering the best result outcome. This study may have implications for additional resources such as production facility and its construction process, feedstock processing logistics and transport infrastructure which are excluded. Future LCA study will require extensive consideration of these additional resources such as: facility size and its construction, better engineering data for water transfer, combined heat and power plant efficiency estimates and the fate of long-term emissions such as organic nitrogen in the AD digestate. Conclusions were drawn and suggestions proffered for further study.

The 2022 World Cup organised by the International Association Football Federation (International Olympic Committee, 2021) and hosted by Qatar was billed to be the tournament that would completely revolutionise football, both on and off the field. It garnered acclaim in being the first World Cup held outside its customary months of June-July as well as in pioneering net zero carbon emissions in the sport - an assertion that ultimately proved largely unfounded(Ralston, 2022) with high reputational consequences for the country and the game. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), like the Carbon Market Watch that works with the European Union amongst others, claimed that “carbon emissions created by the new stadiums could be as much as eight times higher than the figures contained in Qatar’s analysis” (MacInnes, 2022). Against the backdrop of mounting sustainability concerns expressed by policymakers and enthusiasts alike, this essay examines the environmental hazards associated with major sporting events, like the 2022 FIFA World Cup whilst delving into adaptations that organisers could make for future sporting bonanzas that would give their green aspirations wings that could fly without getting burned like the fabled Icarus whose own pride and arrogance led him to ignore the rising temperatures and ultimately cause his demise. Essex Student Journal Volume 14 Issue S1 2023