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description Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Article 2023Embargo end date: 01 Sep 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Elsevier BV Authors: Ma, Y; Ding, Y; Wang, Z; Zhang, W;We use extreme regional pollution emergencies to provide new evidence regarding the motivations for corporate social responsibility (CSR). We document that local firms strategically improve CSR to build trust following pollution emergencies, and this is specifically true for highly polluting firms. Firms face different intensities of external pressure from their stakeholders. In particular, following pollution emergencies, political dependency, institutional investors and public monitoring are the main sources of stakeholder pressure and drivers of the increased CSR. We further find that firms that gain trust through CSR activities after pollution emergencies are rewarded. CSR serves as a buffer against financial constraints, financing distress and the negative profitability effect following emergencies. This study contributes to the CSR literature on trust-building-motivated CSR strategies.
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.All Research productsarrow_drop_down <script type="text/javascript"> <!-- document.write('<div id="oa_widget"></div>'); document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="https://beta.openaire.eu/index.php?option=com_openaire&view=widget&format=raw&projectId=10.1016/j.eneco.2023.106989&type=result"></script>'); --> </script>
For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.euAccess RoutesGreen 6 citations 6 popularity Average influence Average impulse Top 10% Powered by BIP!
visibility 4visibility views 4 Powered bymore_vert add ClaimPlease grant OpenAIRE to access and update your ORCID works.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2024 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Devereux, Leon;doi: 10.17863/cam.111375
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) are a photovoltaic technology based around light-harvesting dye molecules bound to thin semiconductor films of high surface area. Many of the highest-performing DSCs to date incorporate multiple dyes that harvest light from different regions of the solar spectrum in a complementary manner – these are known as cosensitized DSCs. However, finding dyes that are well-suited for cosensitization is a long and costly experimental process when carried out through trial and error in a laboratory. To help direct experimentalists towards promising candidates, the main project of this thesis harnesses ideas from data-driven materials discovery to develop an entirely computational pipeline that predicts boosts in performance of dye pairs when cosensitized. It does this by identifying partner dyes that show the most complementary absorption characteristics to sets of well-known or high-performing starting dyes, systematically sifting candidates from a large database of optically active compounds. It then uses density functional theory (DFT) simulations to compute key structural, electronic and optical properties of the selected pairs of dyes, which are used as inputs to models that predict short-circuit current density (JSC) and open-circuit voltage (VOC), two key device performance parameters. The predictive models for JSC and VOC of singly-sensitized devices are developed further from existing models used in previous works, and are also expanded to the cosensitized case for the first time. 11 starting dyes were passed through the pipeline (six organic and five organometallic), leading to 22 dyes in total being modelled at the DFT level as 11 pairs. The accuracy of predicted JSC and VOC for single sensitizers was tested against existing experimental references. Notably, half of the JSC predictions were within 20% error or less of experimental values whilst others had greater discrepancies, the sources of which are discussed in detail. These results are significant given the choice of structurally dissimilar dyes here – this accuracy is on par with previous computational studies that focussed only on sets of structurally analogous dyes. From the predictions of cosensitized devices containing the complementary dye pairs, two standout cells were those containing **SQ2**+**LD2** dyes and **YD2**+**VKXB** dyes, which gave +13% and +12% boosts to JSC relative to their singly-sensitized counterparts, respectively. A secondary computational project was also carried out in collaboration with previous experiments of DSC dye monolayer growth over time. Whilst complete dye monolayers have been studied extensively, their behaviour as they grow is less well understood, despite its importance for DSC fabrication. X-ray reflectometry (XRR) had been used by a collaborator to investigate monolayer thicknesses and densities as they grow under different conditions in the DSC fabrication process. This author trained a neural network to perform rapid, deterministic fitting of 360 experimental reflectivity curves in high-throughput fashion. The DSC dye layer parameters predicted by this machine-learning model were compared to those from a human-assisted fit with standard software (such fitting being orders of magnitude slower to carry out). The neural network predictions had high accuracy for instances where monolayers adhered to the assumptions of the Parratt model used to fit reflectivity curves, but poorer accuracy during periods of faster change in thickness, suggesting dynamic behaviour of dye ensembles that warrants further investigation. Thus, the neural network acted as a supporting tool to identify where to focus further experimental DSC investigation, which is the overarching theme connecting the two projects of this thesis. Chapter 1 provides a literature review of DSC function, the structure-property relationships of their component materials, and pre-existing computational methods that predict DSC performance. Chapter 2 provides a technical background to the density-functional theory (DFT) methods used throughout much of this work. Chapter 3 presents the design-to-device pipeline methodology developed in this work. Chapter 4 displays and discusses the results of this pipeline as applied to six well-known or high-performing organic dyes and their six complementary partner dyes identified. Chapter 5 similarly presents results for five ruthenium-based dyes and their cognate organic partner dyes that were identified by the pipeline. Chapter 6 provides a background to XRR and neural networks, before presenting the training of neural network and evaluating its performance in reproducing fitted layer parameters from the experimental XRR data described above. Chapter 7 discusses the conclusions of this work and how further research may be enabled.
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2023Embargo end date: 20 Jun 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Mándoki, Réka;doi: 10.17863/cam.97213
The construction industry in Europe is in transition. In the last decade, challenges related to inefficiencies in the sector, the shortage of skilled labour, and environmental concerns initiated a shift towards off-site manufacturing. In Hungary, the first examples of prefabricated residential buildings have just appeared after a 30-year-long break. At the same time, in post-socialist countries, the general attitude towards modern methods of construction is rather complex. While the Western examples of modular constructions are admired, local examples of prefabricated and standardised homes from the socialist era are neglected or criticised for their uniformity and inability to change. This thesis examines the social limits of standardisation in the Hungarian context, specifically focusing on how we can ensure that in the future, mass-manufactured buildings will be sustainable and retain their social respectability, technical qualities and economic value for a long time. It is found that standardisation does not necessarily limit creativity and can be socially sustainable, provided that it does not result in uniform constructions. Findings rely on an extensive review of the literature and real-life architectural examples, statistical results from two online surveys on preconceptions about mass-manufactured buildings, and space syntactical investigations of preferred home layouts. The findings of the project include showing that young Hungarian adults associate mass produced buildings with the loss of diversity, but they find these buildings environmentally friendly, fast to produce, progressive and fashionable. In addition, it is shown that it is possible to use small graph matching and density-based clustering to find the most suitable layouts for socially-conscious mass manufacturing. The practical outcomes of this project include an exemplar dwelling that showcases good design, a framework for discussing standardised buildings, and a Plug-in that can evaluate any new apartments created in Autodesk Revit based on the developed guidelines.
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.All Research productsarrow_drop_down <script type="text/javascript"> <!-- document.write('<div id="oa_widget"></div>'); document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="https://beta.openaire.eu/index.php?option=com_openaire&view=widget&format=raw&projectId=10.17863/cam.97213&type=result"></script>'); --> </script>
For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.euAccess RoutesGreen 0 citations 0 popularity Average influence Average impulse Average Powered by BIP!
more_vert add ClaimPlease grant OpenAIRE to access and update your ORCID works.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.All Research productsarrow_drop_down <script type="text/javascript"> <!-- document.write('<div id="oa_widget"></div>'); document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="https://beta.openaire.eu/index.php?option=com_openaire&view=widget&format=raw&projectId=10.17863/cam.97213&type=result"></script>'); --> </script>
For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2024 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Gittins, James;doi: 10.17863/cam.113167
Supercapacitors are high-power energy storage devices that will play an important role in the transition to a low-carbon society. In recent years, layered electrically conductive metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as one of the most promising electrode materials for next-generation supercapacitors. Their crystalline and tuneable structures facilitate structure-performance studies, which are challenging to conduct with traditional porous carbon electrodes. In this work, the electrochemical performances of layered conductive MOFs in supercapacitors are investigated to both improve our understanding of these materials and to develop structure-performance relationships. Having demonstrated that the layered conductive MOF Cu3(HHTP)2 (HHTP = 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexahydroxytriphenylene) exhibits good performance in supercapacitors, measurements on samples with different particle morphologies reveal that ‘flake’ particles, with small length-to-width aspect ratios, are optimal for these devices. This is due to improved ion accessibility and dynamics through the short pores of the ‘flake’ particles, resulting in a higher power performance compared to particle morphologies with longer pores. Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) and three-electrode experiments are then performed with Cu3(HHTP)2 and a series of electrolytes with different cation sizes to investigate both the charging mechanism of this MOF and how electrolyte ion size impacts electrochemical performance. It is shown that cations are the dominant charge carriers in Cu3(HHTP)2, with co-ion desorption occurring upon positive charging and counterion adsorption during negative charging. Large ions lead to porosity saturation in MOF electrodes, reducing charge storage and forcing solvent molecules to participate in the charge storage mechanism. The impact of modifying MOF-electrolyte interactions on the electrochemical capacity of layered MOF supercapacitors is then investigated by altering both the electrolyte cation and the MOF electrode functionality. These experiments allow for the systematic probing of the influence of different functional groups on supercapacitor performance, and reveal that MOFs with hydroxy ligating groups, together with Li⁺ electrolytes, constitute the best electrode-electrolyte combination for maximising capacitive performance. Finally, an interlaboratory study is conducted to assess the variability in the reporting of performance metrics across different laboratories. Overall, this work provides unique insights into the performances of layered conductive MOFs for supercapacitor applications, and will guide the design of improved electrode materials for next-generation supercapacitors.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eu0 citations 0 popularity Average influence Average impulse Average Powered by BIP!
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Christie, Anna;doi: 10.17863/cam.104350
The prevailing rhetoric associated with hedge fund activism is almost universally negative. This thesis provides new evidence of activist hedge fund behavior that contradicts this dominant narrative. The principal idea underpinning the thesis is that the conventional picture of hedge fund activism requires updating to account for two key recent phenomena: activist board representation and environmental, social, and governance (“ESG”) activism. The thesis makes at least four important contributions to academic and policy debates on hedge fund activism. First, through analyzing original hand-collected data on activist hedge fund campaigns, it demonstrates that a relatively new form of activism – activist board representation – tends to involve a longer-term approach to value creation through strategic and operational changes, rather than the short term financial engineering that activist hedge funds are commonly criticized for engaging in. Second, it builds upon the study of activist board representation campaigns to argue that activist hedge funds may be well positioned to play a unique role in ESG activism by nominating specialist climate directors to corporate boards. Third, it outlines how the phenomenon of activist board representation exposes the deficiencies of the independent monitoring board and provides suggestions for potential corporate governance improvements. Finally, it theorizes the incentives behind ESG hedge fund activism, thus providing early insights into this rapidly evolving practice. The thesis is structured as follows: Part I (Chapters 1 and 2) situates hedge fund activism and the role of the board in traditional and contemporary corporate governance debates. Chapter 1 examines the intellectual foundations underpinning the monitoring board as a response to the shareholder-manager agency problem and challenges its continued dominance in light of pressing societal challenges facing corporations. Chapter 2 critiques the narrative of short-termism that is prevalent in politics, the media, and corporate practice, which can obscure learning from the campaigns of activist hedge funds. Part II (Chapters 3 and 4) examines activist hedge fund board representation campaigns. Chapter 3 introduces this new form of hedge fund activism and presents a theory and hypotheses on the potential value associated with this type of activism. Chapter 4 tests the hypotheses presented in the preceding chapter through an empirical study analyzing activist board representation campaigns at S&P 500 companies since 2010. Part III (Chapters 5 to 7) explores ESG activism. Chapter 5 develops a new account of sustainable capitalism using the building blocks of agency theory. It highlights the major shift to passive index investing and ESG investing and analyzes the monitoring shortfall on the part of global asset managers. Chapter 6 discusses ESG hedge fund activism and – building on the theory and the empirical study presented in Part II – proposes that activist hedge funds can play a unique role in a sustainable capitalism framework by nominating specialist directors with climate or energy transition expertise to corporate boards. Chapter 7 considers socially responsible activism and presents a theoretical framework of ESG hedge fund activism.
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Article , Journal 2019Publisher:Elsevier BV Authors: Massimiliano M. Villone; Martien A. Hulsen; Pier Luca Maffettone;Understanding how the deformation history affects the retraction dynamics of viscoelastic liquid films can provide a tool to design materials. In this paper, we investigate the stretching and retraction of circular viscoelastic liquid films through finite element numerical simulations. We consider a discoid domain made of a viscoelastic liquid. Its central hole is first ‘closed’ and then released, being left free to open under the effect of inertial, surface, viscous, and elastic forces. We perform a parametric study of film retraction, aiming at understanding the effects of the physical and operating parameters on it. In particular, we consider different viscoelastic constitutive equations, namely, Oldroyd-B, Giesekus (Gsk), and Phan Thien-Tanner (PTT) models, and different values of the film initial thickness. For each liquid and geometry, we investigate the effects of the film stretching rate and of liquid inertia, elasticity, and flow-dependent viscosity on the dynamics of the hole opening.
Journal of Non-Newto... arrow_drop_down Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019Data sources: DANS (Data Archiving and Networked Services)Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019 . Peer-reviewedLicense: Elsevier TDMData sources: Crossrefadd ClaimPlease grant OpenAIRE to access and update your ORCID works.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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more_vert Journal of Non-Newto... arrow_drop_down Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019Data sources: DANS (Data Archiving and Networked Services)Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019 . Peer-reviewedLicense: Elsevier TDMData sources: Crossrefadd ClaimPlease grant OpenAIRE to access and update your ORCID works.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.All Research productsarrow_drop_down <script type="text/javascript"> <!-- document.write('<div id="oa_widget"></div>'); document.write('<script type="text/javascript" src="https://beta.openaire.eu/index.php?option=com_openaire&view=widget&format=raw&projectId=10.1016/j.jnnfm.2019.03.001&type=result"></script>'); --> </script>
For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Wang, Zhen;doi: 10.17863/cam.104569
Block copolymer self-assembly has proven to be an effective route for the fabrication of photonic films and, more recently, photonic pigments. However, despite extensive research on this topic over the past two decades, the palette of monomers and polymers employed to produce such structurally coloured materials has remained surprisingly limited. In this dissertation, a series of biocompatible bottlebrush block copolymers (BBCPs) have been synthesised based upon polyester or polyether macromonomers, including: polylactide, polycaprolactone, or polyethylene glycol. These BBCPs are self-assembled within emulsified droplets into microparticles with a photonic glass architecture that reflects vibrant structural colour. Importantly, a full-colour palette of such ‘photonic pigments’ can be achieved by changing either the BBCP properties (e.g., composition, molecular weight) or the microparticle fabrication conditions (e.g., temperature, time). The relationship between the morphology of the BBCP microparticles and their optical response was ascertained, which allowed for a strategy to enhance the colour purity to be developed. Finally, by investigating BBCPs with similar composition, but different thermal behaviours, it allowed for the mechanism underlying the formation of the internal nanoarchitecture to be understood. Beyond improving the biocompatibility of the BBCPs used for photonics, their end-of-life pathway was also considered. Through the insertion of a degradable linkage into the BBCP backbone, they could be broken down into low molecular weight oligomers under mild conditions. This was demonstrated by incorporating a silyl ether into a polyester-based BBCP, which was exploited in the development of degradable photonic materials based upon lamellar architectures. Overall, the biocompatible and degradable BBCPs developed over the course of these studies will provide the photonics community with a new direction to explore when seeking to resolve the outstanding issue regarding the sustainability of artificial colourants.
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.euAccess RoutesGreen 0 citations 0 popularity Average influence Average impulse Average Powered by BIP!
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Doctoral thesis Embargo end date: 14 Oct 2015 ItalyAuthors: CIASULLO, RAFFAELE;Il presente lavoro si sviluppa sulla base della ricerca scientifica, condotta nelle attività di dottorato per il settore disciplinare delle scienze merceologiche. L’obiettivo del progetto di ricerca fa riferimento all’ analisi critica e scientifica degli strumenti normativi utilizzati nelle politiche di management ambientale. In questo studio le politiche di management ambientale sono l’espressione normativa di due grandi problemi, quali l’emissione in atmosfera dei gas inquinanti, chiamati (no-GHG) e i gas ad effetto serra, chiamati gas (GHG – GreenHouse Gases ). Gli effetti negativi provocati dai GHG e no-GHG, permettono di definire i comportamenti degli agenti economici (industrie) che sono spesso all’origine dei problemi ambientali. Non è facile stimare esattamente l’entità dei danni causati dall’inquinamento atmosferico sulla salute umana e all’ambiente. Dai risultati del progetto Aphekom (http://www.aphekom.org/web/aphekom.org/home), co-finanziato dalla Commissione Europea, è possibile stimare in Europa una riduzione dell’aspettativa di vita pari a circa 8.6 mesi per singolo individuo (EEA, 2013b). Alcuni modelli economici utilizzati per stimare in termini monetari i danni dell’inquinamento ambientale, considerano frequentemente solo i costi sanitari. Questi modelli non comprendono, tuttavia, i costi che l’inquinamento provoca all’interno della società (EEA, 2013b). Dal Registro Europeo delle emissioni e dei trasferimenti di sostanze inquinanti (E-PRTR – European Pollutant Release and Trasfer Register), l’ agenzia ambientale europea stima che l’inquinamento atmosferico, prodotto dai 10.000 maggiori impianti industriali, è costato in termini di salute ai cittadini europei tra i 102 e i 169 miliardi di euro nel 2009 (EEA, 2013b). La Commissione Europea (2012a) stima che la mancata applicazione delle normative del settore ambientale può causare dei costi all’economia dell’UE pari a circa 50 miliardi di euro l’anno, tra sanità e costi diretti per l’ambiente. La Commissione riporta che: … …”L’ambiente è protetto da circa 200 atti normativi, che tuttavia troppo spesso non vengono correttamente applicati. Ciò non solo nuoce all’ambiente, ma mette a rischio la salute umana, causa incertezze per l’industria e compromette il mercato unico. Si tratta di costi che non possiamo permetterci in tempi di crisi”… (European Commission, 2012a). Tuttavia, sul sito web italiano del Dipartimento delle Politiche Europee (http://www.politicheeuropee.it/attivita/15141/dati), è possibile evidenziare che l’Italia ha il più alto numero di procedure di infrazione per il recepimento delle direttive Europee nel settore ambientale. Su un totale di 119 procedure d’infrazione, 22 procedure sono per il settore ambientale, seguito da 14 procedure per il settore fiscalità e dogane. La rapida espansione della produzione e del consumo di energia hanno portato con sé una vasta gamma di problematiche ambientali a livello locale, regionale e globale. Alcune delle cause della crisi ambientale, sono: 1- L’utilizzo delle fonti fossili, rappresenta la principale causa dei cambiamenti climatici, continuando a ricevere sussidi economici. Come indicato nel rapporto Green Growth Studies: Energy, (http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greening-energy/49157219.pdf) dell’ Organizzazione per la Cooperazione e lo Sviluppo Economico (OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), nel 2009 la dipendenza dai combustibili fossili del sistema energetico mondiale ha prodotto l’84% delle emissioni di gas GHG. I sussidi ai combustibili fossili rappresentano, inoltre, un costo per i contribuenti. 2- Il principio sulla responsabilità ambientale (Direttiva 2004/35/CE), in materia di prevenzione e riparazione del danno ambientale, stabilisce un quadro basato sul principio “chi inquina paga”. Dal rapporto della Commissione Europea “Evaluating the experience gained in the ELD implementation- 2013” (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/legal/liability/pdf/eld_meetings/11_06_2013/Conference%20Report%20-%20final.pdf), si stima che i costi di prevenzione e bonifica sono compresi tra i 3.000 euro e 2 milioni di euro, ma le spese amministrative sono state affrontare solo in pochi casi. Lo studio evidenzia la complessità dei requisiti, delle condizioni applicative, l’assenza degli strumenti e dei documenti di orientamento. Le riforme della politica economica hanno promosso la crescita e la liberalizzazione dei mercati, sottovalutando forse gli effetti degli impatti e dei danni ambientali. In particolar modo i conflitti ambientali, che si manifestano tra il potere economico di alcuni Paesi e la società umana, causano guerre, violazioni dei diritti umani e il fallimento del tradizionale modello economico. I problemi ambientali per i quali si richiede un’attenta analisi politica ed economica sono vari, ad es: i cambiamenti climatici, l’inquinamento dell’atmosfera, del suolo, delle risorse idriche, la desertificazione e l’esaurimento della biodiversità. La salute e il benessere umano sono intimamente legate alla qualità ambientale. Le dinamiche evolutive dei paesi emergenti (europei che extraeuropei) sembrano evidenziare che l’impatto delle misure intraprese finora, non è ancora sufficiente a controbilanciare la crescita delle emissioni rispetto alla crescita economica. L’ obiettivo di riduzione delle emissioni in atmosfera (gas GHG e no-GHG) non è raggiungibile solo mediante semplici adeguamenti del modo di produrre e consumare, ma richiede veri e propri interventi sulla struttura, cultura e pratiche delle produzioni industriali. Gli interventi per un nuovo modello economico a basso tenore di carbonio e l’efficiente uso delle risorse, possono prendere spunto dal moderno approccio della Green Economy. L’agenzia ambientale europea evidenzia che la Green Economy deve : …“implies a departure from the 'business as usual' economic paradigm, to one with regulatory measures and strong financial incentives for innovation, investments (for example, in green technologies), sustainable consumption behaviour, and information-sharing”… (EEA, 2013c). Obiettivo della Green Economy è riconoscere i limiti del pianeta, evidenziando i confini all’interno dei quali deve muoversi il nuovo modello economico, basato su un uso sostenibile delle risorse e una riduzione degli impatti ambientali e sociali. La Green Economy deve essere vista come un nuovo modello economico tout court, non può e non deve essere considerata semplicemente come la parte “verde” dell’economia. Una definizione comune di Green Economy è migliorare la qualità della vita di tutto il genere umano, riducendo le disuguaglianze nel lungo termine, ed evitare di esporre le generazioni future ai preoccupanti rischi ambientali e alle significative scarsità ecologiche. La Green Economy può essere definita come strumento di sviluppo sostenibile, basato sulla valorizzazione del capitale economico (investimenti e ricavi), del capitale naturale (risorse primarie e impatti ambientali) e del capitale sociale (lavoro e benessere) (ENEA, 2012a). L’obiettivo della Green Economy è la riduzione del consumo di energia e delle risorse naturali, l’abbattimento delle emissioni dei gas serra, la riduzione dell’inquinamento, la riduzione del volume dei rifiuti, la promozione di modelli di produzione e di consumo sostenibili. La Green Economy può essere attuata tramite nuove politiche economiche e l’introduzione di eco-tecnologie, la creazione di investimenti e l’eliminazione di sussidi economici dannosi per l’ambiente. L’urgenza di porre dei vincoli allo sfruttamento di risorse e alla riduzione dell’impatto dell’attività umana sull’ambiente, ci impone di rivedere i modelli di sviluppo, adottando politiche e comportamenti responsabili. Questa impostazione, oltre a essere sostenuta dalle politiche (nazionali e internazionali), non può prescindere dal coinvolgimento delle industrie. In tale ambito la comunità internazionale e nazionale hanno posto sempre maggiore attenzione sulle possibili soluzioni e dinamiche, sviluppate per diminuire la quantità delle emissioni inquinanti che hanno effetti sull’ambiente e sulla salute umana. L’obiettivo della mia ricerca scientifica nasce dalla complessità del quadro normativo economico ambientale, in particolar modo in questo lavoro ho analizzato: 1- La prima iniziativa internazionale volta a limitare il fenomeno del Global Warming, sviluppata dalla convenzione dell’ONU, denominata United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) del 1992, e dal Protocollo di Kyoto (COP 7). L’obiettivo del protocollo è quello di adottare delle politiche mondiali a favore della mitigazione del cambiamento climatico, basato sullo spirito collaborativo a livello internazionale. La politica internazionale si basa sull’uso dei meccanismi flessibili e i meccanismi di mitigazione. Particolare attenzione è stata dedicata alle attività LULUCF (Land Use, Land Use Change Forestry) e alla direttiva europea EU-ETS 2003/87/CE (Emission Trading Scheme), per il recepimento degli obiettivi di mitigazione dei gas GHG previsti dal Protocollo di Kyoto. E’ evidente la necessità di una rinegoziazione complessiva che coinvolga tutte i Paesi (principali emettitori in tutto il mondo), con obiettivi più stringenti e un meccanismo di consenso che permetta di monitorare e garantire la conformità agli obiettivi. 2- La direttiva IPPC 2008/1/CE (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control), ora integrata nella direttiva IED 2010/75/UE (Industrial Emission Directive), ha lo scopo di definire gli obblighi per le attività industriali con un elevato potenziale di inquinamento. Le procedure di autorizzazione stabilite dalla direttiva IPPC-IED, fissano i requisiti minimi per mitigare gli impatti sull’ ambiente e sulla salute umana. Tali requisiti minimi sono costituiti dalle BATs (Best Available Technologies). La direttiva IPPC-IED individua le BATs come opportunità competitive, al fine di aumentare le performance finanziarie e diminuire i livelli di emissione degli inquinanti nocivi. L’uso delle BATs può rientrare nell’accezione più ampia della green economy, infatti le tecnologie BATs sono definite “cleaner production”, ovvero, tecnologie studiate per mitigare le cause dell’inquinamento. Attualmente non vi sono prove disponibili sulla l’efficacia della direttiva IPPC-IED e, quindi sulla reale diminuzione delle emissioni inquinanti. Forse, come previsto, la sua influenza è stata positiva, ma è molto difficile dimostrare e comprovare il raggiungimento degli obiettivi della direttiva IPPC-IED con le sole informazioni oggi disponibili. Il Protocollo di Kyoto e la direttiva IPPC-IED sono due strumenti normativi che hanno differenti campi d’azione, ma si prefiggono il medesimo obiettivo. Gli strumenti operativi del Protocollo di Kyoto, (quali CDM- Clean Development Mechanism; JI- Joint Implementation; ET- Emission Trading; Carbon Sink) e gli strumenti operativi della direttiva IPPC-IED, (quali BATs- Best Available Technologies e ELVs- Emission Limit Values), puntano ad un unico obiettivo, limitare gli impatti sulla salute umana e i danni ambientali, causati dai gas GHG ed i gas no GHG. Questo lavoro non pretende di analizzare in modo esaustivo tutte le problematiche legate al cambiamento climatico, le misure di mitigazione e le tecnologie industriali utilizzate, perché sono argomenti con target differenti e piuttosto complessi. L’ aspetto che intendo evidenziare nel mio lavoro di tesi è il dibattito sul rapporto tra la tutela dell’ambiente e la crescita economica. Il mio lavoro vuole evidenziare che le politiche internazionali del protocollo di Kyoto, recepite anche in ambito Europeo e la direttiva IPPC-IED non permettono di conseguire una crescita economica sempre in linea con i principi dello sviluppo sostenibile. La legislazione ambientale nazionale e internazionale è un corpo di leggi, regolamenti e direttive, sviluppate fondamentalmente da politici, funzionari e aziende. E’ un quadro normativo e giuridico complesso, soprattutto se consideriamo l' approccio multidisciplinare per la loro interpretazione. I cambiamenti climatici, il riscaldamento globale, le emissioni in atmosfera e l’uso delle tecnologie sono temi di rilevanza fondamentale. L’applicazione delle stesse è stata analizzata anche rispetto alle logiche della finanziarizzazione del mercato dei crediti di carbonio. A causa della complessità dell’analisi, lo studio della normativa ambientale dell' Unione Europea deve necessariamente includere la sua evoluzione e le modifiche più recenti, così come l’iter della loro applicazione nei Stati membri. Nel mio lavoro di tesi, ho cercato pertanto di rispondere a due domande : 1. Il Protocollo di Kyoto ha raggiunto i suoi obiettivi principali? 2. La direttiva IPPC-IED e l’uso delle BAT hanno raggiunto i loro obiettivi principali? 1. Allo stato attuale possiamo concludere che gli obiettivi del Protocollo di Kyoto, per il primo periodo di impegno terminato nel 2012, non sono stati raggiunti. Inoltre, non possiamo affermare che gli obiettivi siano stati in parte soddisfatti, perché la riduzioni delle emissioni dei gas GHG in alcuni paesi rappresentano quantità non significative rispetto alla crescita delle emissioni a livello mondiale. Anche se l'obiettivo di riduzione di alcuni Paesi inseriti nell’ allegato I del Protocollo di Kyoto sono stati raggiunti, d’altra parte si può osservare che le emissioni globali sono cresciute in modo esponenziale. Le attività LULUCF rappresentano un vantaggio in termini cost-effective nella mitigazione delle emissioni di CO2. La mitigazione non può essere sempre raggiunta con il solo aumento del periodo di rotazione delle foreste, perché ad di là degli obiettivi del Protocollo di Kyoto, ci sono gli interessi economici dei proprietari privati del suolo forestale. Il prezzo di vendita del legno influisce positivamente o negativamente il mercato del carbonio e viceversa; ovvero il pagamento delle unità di carbonio sequestrato può migliorare la sostenibilità finanziaria nel gestire le foreste in lunghi periodi di rotazione. Le attività LULUCF sono cost-effective solo quando i costi marginali e i costi di transazione sono bassi. 2. Lo stato di applicazione della direttiva IPPC-IED in tutti gli Stati membri dell' Unione Europea sembrerebbe essere buono, ma non ancora soddisfacente, perché la maggior parte delle principali industrie europee non sono del tutto conformi allo spirito della direttiva. Sembrerebbe indispensabile un miglioramento dei BREFs e delle BATs per ridurre le emissioni industriali inquinanti a livelli accettabili sia per la tutela ambientale che per la salute umana. La crisi economica ha influito sulla decrescita delle emissioni, ma la tendenza alla riduzione dei gas inquinanti non sembrerebbe essere ancora sostenuta da efficaci politiche nel regolamentare i livelli di emissione.
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description Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Article 2023Embargo end date: 01 Sep 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Elsevier BV Authors: Ma, Y; Ding, Y; Wang, Z; Zhang, W;We use extreme regional pollution emergencies to provide new evidence regarding the motivations for corporate social responsibility (CSR). We document that local firms strategically improve CSR to build trust following pollution emergencies, and this is specifically true for highly polluting firms. Firms face different intensities of external pressure from their stakeholders. In particular, following pollution emergencies, political dependency, institutional investors and public monitoring are the main sources of stakeholder pressure and drivers of the increased CSR. We further find that firms that gain trust through CSR activities after pollution emergencies are rewarded. CSR serves as a buffer against financial constraints, financing distress and the negative profitability effect following emergencies. This study contributes to the CSR literature on trust-building-motivated CSR strategies.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.euAccess RoutesGreen 6 citations 6 popularity Average influence Average impulse Top 10% Powered by BIP!
visibility 4visibility views 4 Powered bymore_vert add ClaimPlease grant OpenAIRE to access and update your ORCID works.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2024 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Devereux, Leon;doi: 10.17863/cam.111375
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) are a photovoltaic technology based around light-harvesting dye molecules bound to thin semiconductor films of high surface area. Many of the highest-performing DSCs to date incorporate multiple dyes that harvest light from different regions of the solar spectrum in a complementary manner – these are known as cosensitized DSCs. However, finding dyes that are well-suited for cosensitization is a long and costly experimental process when carried out through trial and error in a laboratory. To help direct experimentalists towards promising candidates, the main project of this thesis harnesses ideas from data-driven materials discovery to develop an entirely computational pipeline that predicts boosts in performance of dye pairs when cosensitized. It does this by identifying partner dyes that show the most complementary absorption characteristics to sets of well-known or high-performing starting dyes, systematically sifting candidates from a large database of optically active compounds. It then uses density functional theory (DFT) simulations to compute key structural, electronic and optical properties of the selected pairs of dyes, which are used as inputs to models that predict short-circuit current density (JSC) and open-circuit voltage (VOC), two key device performance parameters. The predictive models for JSC and VOC of singly-sensitized devices are developed further from existing models used in previous works, and are also expanded to the cosensitized case for the first time. 11 starting dyes were passed through the pipeline (six organic and five organometallic), leading to 22 dyes in total being modelled at the DFT level as 11 pairs. The accuracy of predicted JSC and VOC for single sensitizers was tested against existing experimental references. Notably, half of the JSC predictions were within 20% error or less of experimental values whilst others had greater discrepancies, the sources of which are discussed in detail. These results are significant given the choice of structurally dissimilar dyes here – this accuracy is on par with previous computational studies that focussed only on sets of structurally analogous dyes. From the predictions of cosensitized devices containing the complementary dye pairs, two standout cells were those containing **SQ2**+**LD2** dyes and **YD2**+**VKXB** dyes, which gave +13% and +12% boosts to JSC relative to their singly-sensitized counterparts, respectively. A secondary computational project was also carried out in collaboration with previous experiments of DSC dye monolayer growth over time. Whilst complete dye monolayers have been studied extensively, their behaviour as they grow is less well understood, despite its importance for DSC fabrication. X-ray reflectometry (XRR) had been used by a collaborator to investigate monolayer thicknesses and densities as they grow under different conditions in the DSC fabrication process. This author trained a neural network to perform rapid, deterministic fitting of 360 experimental reflectivity curves in high-throughput fashion. The DSC dye layer parameters predicted by this machine-learning model were compared to those from a human-assisted fit with standard software (such fitting being orders of magnitude slower to carry out). The neural network predictions had high accuracy for instances where monolayers adhered to the assumptions of the Parratt model used to fit reflectivity curves, but poorer accuracy during periods of faster change in thickness, suggesting dynamic behaviour of dye ensembles that warrants further investigation. Thus, the neural network acted as a supporting tool to identify where to focus further experimental DSC investigation, which is the overarching theme connecting the two projects of this thesis. Chapter 1 provides a literature review of DSC function, the structure-property relationships of their component materials, and pre-existing computational methods that predict DSC performance. Chapter 2 provides a technical background to the density-functional theory (DFT) methods used throughout much of this work. Chapter 3 presents the design-to-device pipeline methodology developed in this work. Chapter 4 displays and discusses the results of this pipeline as applied to six well-known or high-performing organic dyes and their six complementary partner dyes identified. Chapter 5 similarly presents results for five ruthenium-based dyes and their cognate organic partner dyes that were identified by the pipeline. Chapter 6 provides a background to XRR and neural networks, before presenting the training of neural network and evaluating its performance in reproducing fitted layer parameters from the experimental XRR data described above. Chapter 7 discusses the conclusions of this work and how further research may be enabled.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2023Embargo end date: 20 Jun 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Mándoki, Réka;doi: 10.17863/cam.97213
The construction industry in Europe is in transition. In the last decade, challenges related to inefficiencies in the sector, the shortage of skilled labour, and environmental concerns initiated a shift towards off-site manufacturing. In Hungary, the first examples of prefabricated residential buildings have just appeared after a 30-year-long break. At the same time, in post-socialist countries, the general attitude towards modern methods of construction is rather complex. While the Western examples of modular constructions are admired, local examples of prefabricated and standardised homes from the socialist era are neglected or criticised for their uniformity and inability to change. This thesis examines the social limits of standardisation in the Hungarian context, specifically focusing on how we can ensure that in the future, mass-manufactured buildings will be sustainable and retain their social respectability, technical qualities and economic value for a long time. It is found that standardisation does not necessarily limit creativity and can be socially sustainable, provided that it does not result in uniform constructions. Findings rely on an extensive review of the literature and real-life architectural examples, statistical results from two online surveys on preconceptions about mass-manufactured buildings, and space syntactical investigations of preferred home layouts. The findings of the project include showing that young Hungarian adults associate mass produced buildings with the loss of diversity, but they find these buildings environmentally friendly, fast to produce, progressive and fashionable. In addition, it is shown that it is possible to use small graph matching and density-based clustering to find the most suitable layouts for socially-conscious mass manufacturing. The practical outcomes of this project include an exemplar dwelling that showcases good design, a framework for discussing standardised buildings, and a Plug-in that can evaluate any new apartments created in Autodesk Revit based on the developed guidelines.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.euAccess RoutesGreen 0 citations 0 popularity Average influence Average impulse Average Powered by BIP!
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You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2024 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Gittins, James;doi: 10.17863/cam.113167
Supercapacitors are high-power energy storage devices that will play an important role in the transition to a low-carbon society. In recent years, layered electrically conductive metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as one of the most promising electrode materials for next-generation supercapacitors. Their crystalline and tuneable structures facilitate structure-performance studies, which are challenging to conduct with traditional porous carbon electrodes. In this work, the electrochemical performances of layered conductive MOFs in supercapacitors are investigated to both improve our understanding of these materials and to develop structure-performance relationships. Having demonstrated that the layered conductive MOF Cu3(HHTP)2 (HHTP = 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexahydroxytriphenylene) exhibits good performance in supercapacitors, measurements on samples with different particle morphologies reveal that ‘flake’ particles, with small length-to-width aspect ratios, are optimal for these devices. This is due to improved ion accessibility and dynamics through the short pores of the ‘flake’ particles, resulting in a higher power performance compared to particle morphologies with longer pores. Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) and three-electrode experiments are then performed with Cu3(HHTP)2 and a series of electrolytes with different cation sizes to investigate both the charging mechanism of this MOF and how electrolyte ion size impacts electrochemical performance. It is shown that cations are the dominant charge carriers in Cu3(HHTP)2, with co-ion desorption occurring upon positive charging and counterion adsorption during negative charging. Large ions lead to porosity saturation in MOF electrodes, reducing charge storage and forcing solvent molecules to participate in the charge storage mechanism. The impact of modifying MOF-electrolyte interactions on the electrochemical capacity of layered MOF supercapacitors is then investigated by altering both the electrolyte cation and the MOF electrode functionality. These experiments allow for the systematic probing of the influence of different functional groups on supercapacitor performance, and reveal that MOFs with hydroxy ligating groups, together with Li⁺ electrolytes, constitute the best electrode-electrolyte combination for maximising capacitive performance. Finally, an interlaboratory study is conducted to assess the variability in the reporting of performance metrics across different laboratories. Overall, this work provides unique insights into the performances of layered conductive MOFs for supercapacitor applications, and will guide the design of improved electrode materials for next-generation supercapacitors.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Christie, Anna;doi: 10.17863/cam.104350
The prevailing rhetoric associated with hedge fund activism is almost universally negative. This thesis provides new evidence of activist hedge fund behavior that contradicts this dominant narrative. The principal idea underpinning the thesis is that the conventional picture of hedge fund activism requires updating to account for two key recent phenomena: activist board representation and environmental, social, and governance (“ESG”) activism. The thesis makes at least four important contributions to academic and policy debates on hedge fund activism. First, through analyzing original hand-collected data on activist hedge fund campaigns, it demonstrates that a relatively new form of activism – activist board representation – tends to involve a longer-term approach to value creation through strategic and operational changes, rather than the short term financial engineering that activist hedge funds are commonly criticized for engaging in. Second, it builds upon the study of activist board representation campaigns to argue that activist hedge funds may be well positioned to play a unique role in ESG activism by nominating specialist climate directors to corporate boards. Third, it outlines how the phenomenon of activist board representation exposes the deficiencies of the independent monitoring board and provides suggestions for potential corporate governance improvements. Finally, it theorizes the incentives behind ESG hedge fund activism, thus providing early insights into this rapidly evolving practice. The thesis is structured as follows: Part I (Chapters 1 and 2) situates hedge fund activism and the role of the board in traditional and contemporary corporate governance debates. Chapter 1 examines the intellectual foundations underpinning the monitoring board as a response to the shareholder-manager agency problem and challenges its continued dominance in light of pressing societal challenges facing corporations. Chapter 2 critiques the narrative of short-termism that is prevalent in politics, the media, and corporate practice, which can obscure learning from the campaigns of activist hedge funds. Part II (Chapters 3 and 4) examines activist hedge fund board representation campaigns. Chapter 3 introduces this new form of hedge fund activism and presents a theory and hypotheses on the potential value associated with this type of activism. Chapter 4 tests the hypotheses presented in the preceding chapter through an empirical study analyzing activist board representation campaigns at S&P 500 companies since 2010. Part III (Chapters 5 to 7) explores ESG activism. Chapter 5 develops a new account of sustainable capitalism using the building blocks of agency theory. It highlights the major shift to passive index investing and ESG investing and analyzes the monitoring shortfall on the part of global asset managers. Chapter 6 discusses ESG hedge fund activism and – building on the theory and the empirical study presented in Part II – proposes that activist hedge funds can play a unique role in a sustainable capitalism framework by nominating specialist directors with climate or energy transition expertise to corporate boards. Chapter 7 considers socially responsible activism and presents a theoretical framework of ESG hedge fund activism.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Article , Journal 2019Publisher:Elsevier BV Authors: Massimiliano M. Villone; Martien A. Hulsen; Pier Luca Maffettone;Understanding how the deformation history affects the retraction dynamics of viscoelastic liquid films can provide a tool to design materials. In this paper, we investigate the stretching and retraction of circular viscoelastic liquid films through finite element numerical simulations. We consider a discoid domain made of a viscoelastic liquid. Its central hole is first ‘closed’ and then released, being left free to open under the effect of inertial, surface, viscous, and elastic forces. We perform a parametric study of film retraction, aiming at understanding the effects of the physical and operating parameters on it. In particular, we consider different viscoelastic constitutive equations, namely, Oldroyd-B, Giesekus (Gsk), and Phan Thien-Tanner (PTT) models, and different values of the film initial thickness. For each liquid and geometry, we investigate the effects of the film stretching rate and of liquid inertia, elasticity, and flow-dependent viscosity on the dynamics of the hole opening.
Journal of Non-Newto... arrow_drop_down Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019Data sources: DANS (Data Archiving and Networked Services)Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019 . Peer-reviewedLicense: Elsevier TDMData sources: Crossrefadd ClaimPlease grant OpenAIRE to access and update your ORCID works.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
You have already added works in your ORCID record related to the merged Research product.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.euAccess Routesbronze 5 citations 5 popularity Top 10% influence Average impulse Top 10% Powered by BIP!
more_vert Journal of Non-Newto... arrow_drop_down Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019Data sources: DANS (Data Archiving and Networked Services)Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid MechanicsArticle . 2019 . Peer-reviewedLicense: Elsevier TDMData sources: Crossrefadd ClaimPlease grant OpenAIRE to access and update your ORCID works.This Research product is the result of merged Research products in OpenAIRE.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Thesis 2023 United KingdomPublisher:Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository Authors: Wang, Zhen;doi: 10.17863/cam.104569
Block copolymer self-assembly has proven to be an effective route for the fabrication of photonic films and, more recently, photonic pigments. However, despite extensive research on this topic over the past two decades, the palette of monomers and polymers employed to produce such structurally coloured materials has remained surprisingly limited. In this dissertation, a series of biocompatible bottlebrush block copolymers (BBCPs) have been synthesised based upon polyester or polyether macromonomers, including: polylactide, polycaprolactone, or polyethylene glycol. These BBCPs are self-assembled within emulsified droplets into microparticles with a photonic glass architecture that reflects vibrant structural colour. Importantly, a full-colour palette of such ‘photonic pigments’ can be achieved by changing either the BBCP properties (e.g., composition, molecular weight) or the microparticle fabrication conditions (e.g., temperature, time). The relationship between the morphology of the BBCP microparticles and their optical response was ascertained, which allowed for a strategy to enhance the colour purity to be developed. Finally, by investigating BBCPs with similar composition, but different thermal behaviours, it allowed for the mechanism underlying the formation of the internal nanoarchitecture to be understood. Beyond improving the biocompatibility of the BBCPs used for photonics, their end-of-life pathway was also considered. Through the insertion of a degradable linkage into the BBCP backbone, they could be broken down into low molecular weight oligomers under mild conditions. This was demonstrated by incorporating a silyl ether into a polyester-based BBCP, which was exploited in the development of degradable photonic materials based upon lamellar architectures. Overall, the biocompatible and degradable BBCPs developed over the course of these studies will provide the photonics community with a new direction to explore when seeking to resolve the outstanding issue regarding the sustainability of artificial colourants.
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For further information contact us at helpdesk@openaire.eudescription Publicationkeyboard_double_arrow_right Doctoral thesis Embargo end date: 14 Oct 2015 ItalyAuthors: CIASULLO, RAFFAELE;Il presente lavoro si sviluppa sulla base della ricerca scientifica, condotta nelle attività di dottorato per il settore disciplinare delle scienze merceologiche. L’obiettivo del progetto di ricerca fa riferimento all’ analisi critica e scientifica degli strumenti normativi utilizzati nelle politiche di management ambientale. In questo studio le politiche di management ambientale sono l’espressione normativa di due grandi problemi, quali l’emissione in atmosfera dei gas inquinanti, chiamati (no-GHG) e i gas ad effetto serra, chiamati gas (GHG – GreenHouse Gases ). Gli effetti negativi provocati dai GHG e no-GHG, permettono di definire i comportamenti degli agenti economici (industrie) che sono spesso all’origine dei problemi ambientali. Non è facile stimare esattamente l’entità dei danni causati dall’inquinamento atmosferico sulla salute umana e all’ambiente. Dai risultati del progetto Aphekom (http://www.aphekom.org/web/aphekom.org/home), co-finanziato dalla Commissione Europea, è possibile stimare in Europa una riduzione dell’aspettativa di vita pari a circa 8.6 mesi per singolo individuo (EEA, 2013b). Alcuni modelli economici utilizzati per stimare in termini monetari i danni dell’inquinamento ambientale, considerano frequentemente solo i costi sanitari. Questi modelli non comprendono, tuttavia, i costi che l’inquinamento provoca all’interno della società (EEA, 2013b). Dal Registro Europeo delle emissioni e dei trasferimenti di sostanze inquinanti (E-PRTR – European Pollutant Release and Trasfer Register), l’ agenzia ambientale europea stima che l’inquinamento atmosferico, prodotto dai 10.000 maggiori impianti industriali, è costato in termini di salute ai cittadini europei tra i 102 e i 169 miliardi di euro nel 2009 (EEA, 2013b). La Commissione Europea (2012a) stima che la mancata applicazione delle normative del settore ambientale può causare dei costi all’economia dell’UE pari a circa 50 miliardi di euro l’anno, tra sanità e costi diretti per l’ambiente. La Commissione riporta che: … …”L’ambiente è protetto da circa 200 atti normativi, che tuttavia troppo spesso non vengono correttamente applicati. Ciò non solo nuoce all’ambiente, ma mette a rischio la salute umana, causa incertezze per l’industria e compromette il mercato unico. Si tratta di costi che non possiamo permetterci in tempi di crisi”… (European Commission, 2012a). Tuttavia, sul sito web italiano del Dipartimento delle Politiche Europee (http://www.politicheeuropee.it/attivita/15141/dati), è possibile evidenziare che l’Italia ha il più alto numero di procedure di infrazione per il recepimento delle direttive Europee nel settore ambientale. Su un totale di 119 procedure d’infrazione, 22 procedure sono per il settore ambientale, seguito da 14 procedure per il settore fiscalità e dogane. La rapida espansione della produzione e del consumo di energia hanno portato con sé una vasta gamma di problematiche ambientali a livello locale, regionale e globale. Alcune delle cause della crisi ambientale, sono: 1- L’utilizzo delle fonti fossili, rappresenta la principale causa dei cambiamenti climatici, continuando a ricevere sussidi economici. Come indicato nel rapporto Green Growth Studies: Energy, (http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greening-energy/49157219.pdf) dell’ Organizzazione per la Cooperazione e lo Sviluppo Economico (OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), nel 2009 la dipendenza dai combustibili fossili del sistema energetico mondiale ha prodotto l’84% delle emissioni di gas GHG. I sussidi ai combustibili fossili rappresentano, inoltre, un costo per i contribuenti. 2- Il principio sulla responsabilità ambientale (Direttiva 2004/35/CE), in materia di prevenzione e riparazione del danno ambientale, stabilisce un quadro basato sul principio “chi inquina paga”. Dal rapporto della Commissione Europea “Evaluating the experience gained in the ELD implementation- 2013” (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/legal/liability/pdf/eld_meetings/11_06_2013/Conference%20Report%20-%20final.pdf), si stima che i costi di prevenzione e bonifica sono compresi tra i 3.000 euro e 2 milioni di euro, ma le spese amministrative sono state affrontare solo in pochi casi. Lo studio evidenzia la complessità dei requisiti, delle condizioni applicative, l’assenza degli strumenti e dei documenti di orientamento. Le riforme della politica economica hanno promosso la crescita e la liberalizzazione dei mercati, sottovalutando forse gli effetti degli impatti e dei danni ambientali. In particolar modo i conflitti ambientali, che si manifestano tra il potere economico di alcuni Paesi e la società umana, causano guerre, violazioni dei diritti umani e il fallimento del tradizionale modello economico. I problemi ambientali per i quali si richiede un’attenta analisi politica ed economica sono vari, ad es: i cambiamenti climatici, l’inquinamento dell’atmosfera, del suolo, delle risorse idriche, la desertificazione e l’esaurimento della biodiversità. La salute e il benessere umano sono intimamente legate alla qualità ambientale. Le dinamiche evolutive dei paesi emergenti (europei che extraeuropei) sembrano evidenziare che l’impatto delle misure intraprese finora, non è ancora sufficiente a controbilanciare la crescita delle emissioni rispetto alla crescita economica. L’ obiettivo di riduzione delle emissioni in atmosfera (gas GHG e no-GHG) non è raggiungibile solo mediante semplici adeguamenti del modo di produrre e consumare, ma richiede veri e propri interventi sulla struttura, cultura e pratiche delle produzioni industriali. Gli interventi per un nuovo modello economico a basso tenore di carbonio e l’efficiente uso delle risorse, possono prendere spunto dal moderno approccio della Green Economy. L’agenzia ambientale europea evidenzia che la Green Economy deve : …“implies a departure from the 'business as usual' economic paradigm, to one with regulatory measures and strong financial incentives for innovation, investments (for example, in green technologies), sustainable consumption behaviour, and information-sharing”… (EEA, 2013c). Obiettivo della Green Economy è riconoscere i limiti del pianeta, evidenziando i confini all’interno dei quali deve muoversi il nuovo modello economico, basato su un uso sostenibile delle risorse e una riduzione degli impatti ambientali e sociali. La Green Economy deve essere vista come un nuovo modello economico tout court, non può e non deve essere considerata semplicemente come la parte “verde” dell’economia. Una definizione comune di Green Economy è migliorare la qualità della vita di tutto il genere umano, riducendo le disuguaglianze nel lungo termine, ed evitare di esporre le generazioni future ai preoccupanti rischi ambientali e alle significative scarsità ecologiche. La Green Economy può essere definita come strumento di sviluppo sostenibile, basato sulla valorizzazione del capitale economico (investimenti e ricavi), del capitale naturale (risorse primarie e impatti ambientali) e del capitale sociale (lavoro e benessere) (ENEA, 2012a). L’obiettivo della Green Economy è la riduzione del consumo di energia e delle risorse naturali, l’abbattimento delle emissioni dei gas serra, la riduzione dell’inquinamento, la riduzione del volume dei rifiuti, la promozione di modelli di produzione e di consumo sostenibili. La Green Economy può essere attuata tramite nuove politiche economiche e l’introduzione di eco-tecnologie, la creazione di investimenti e l’eliminazione di sussidi economici dannosi per l’ambiente. L’urgenza di porre dei vincoli allo sfruttamento di risorse e alla riduzione dell’impatto dell’attività umana sull’ambiente, ci impone di rivedere i modelli di sviluppo, adottando politiche e comportamenti responsabili. Questa impostazione, oltre a essere sostenuta dalle politiche (nazionali e internazionali), non può prescindere dal coinvolgimento delle industrie. In tale ambito la comunità internazionale e nazionale hanno posto sempre maggiore attenzione sulle possibili soluzioni e dinamiche, sviluppate per diminuire la quantità delle emissioni inquinanti che hanno effetti sull’ambiente e sulla salute umana. L’obiettivo della mia ricerca scientifica nasce dalla complessità del quadro normativo economico ambientale, in particolar modo in questo lavoro ho analizzato: 1- La prima iniziativa internazionale volta a limitare il fenomeno del Global Warming, sviluppata dalla convenzione dell’ONU, denominata United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) del 1992, e dal Protocollo di Kyoto (COP 7). L’obiettivo del protocollo è quello di adottare delle politiche mondiali a favore della mitigazione del cambiamento climatico, basato sullo spirito collaborativo a livello internazionale. La politica internazionale si basa sull’uso dei meccanismi flessibili e i meccanismi di mitigazione. Particolare attenzione è stata dedicata alle attività LULUCF (Land Use, Land Use Change Forestry) e alla direttiva europea EU-ETS 2003/87/CE (Emission Trading Scheme), per il recepimento degli obiettivi di mitigazione dei gas GHG previsti dal Protocollo di Kyoto. E’ evidente la necessità di una rinegoziazione complessiva che coinvolga tutte i Paesi (principali emettitori in tutto il mondo), con obiettivi più stringenti e un meccanismo di consenso che permetta di monitorare e garantire la conformità agli obiettivi. 2- La direttiva IPPC 2008/1/CE (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control), ora integrata nella direttiva IED 2010/75/UE (Industrial Emission Directive), ha lo scopo di definire gli obblighi per le attività industriali con un elevato potenziale di inquinamento. Le procedure di autorizzazione stabilite dalla direttiva IPPC-IED, fissano i requisiti minimi per mitigare gli impatti sull’ ambiente e sulla salute umana. Tali requisiti minimi sono costituiti dalle BATs (Best Available Technologies). La direttiva IPPC-IED individua le BATs come opportunità competitive, al fine di aumentare le performance finanziarie e diminuire i livelli di emissione degli inquinanti nocivi. L’uso delle BATs può rientrare nell’accezione più ampia della green economy, infatti le tecnologie BATs sono definite “cleaner production”, ovvero, tecnologie studiate per mitigare le cause dell’inquinamento. Attualmente non vi sono prove disponibili sulla l’efficacia della direttiva IPPC-IED e, quindi sulla reale diminuzione delle emissioni inquinanti. Forse, come previsto, la sua influenza è stata positiva, ma è molto difficile dimostrare e comprovare il raggiungimento degli obiettivi della direttiva IPPC-IED con le sole informazioni oggi disponibili. Il Protocollo di Kyoto e la direttiva IPPC-IED sono due strumenti normativi che hanno differenti campi d’azione, ma si prefiggono il medesimo obiettivo. Gli strumenti operativi del Protocollo di Kyoto, (quali CDM- Clean Development Mechanism; JI- Joint Implementation; ET- Emission Trading; Carbon Sink) e gli strumenti operativi della direttiva IPPC-IED, (quali BATs- Best Available Technologies e ELVs- Emission Limit Values), puntano ad un unico obiettivo, limitare gli impatti sulla salute umana e i danni ambientali, causati dai gas GHG ed i gas no GHG. Questo lavoro non pretende di analizzare in modo esaustivo tutte le problematiche legate al cambiamento climatico, le misure di mitigazione e le tecnologie industriali utilizzate, perché sono argomenti con target differenti e piuttosto complessi. L’ aspetto che intendo evidenziare nel mio lavoro di tesi è il dibattito sul rapporto tra la tutela dell’ambiente e la crescita economica. Il mio lavoro vuole evidenziare che le politiche internazionali del protocollo di Kyoto, recepite anche in ambito Europeo e la direttiva IPPC-IED non permettono di conseguire una crescita economica sempre in linea con i principi dello sviluppo sostenibile. La legislazione ambientale nazionale e internazionale è un corpo di leggi, regolamenti e direttive, sviluppate fondamentalmente da politici, funzionari e aziende. E’ un quadro normativo e giuridico complesso, soprattutto se consideriamo l' approccio multidisciplinare per la loro interpretazione. I cambiamenti climatici, il riscaldamento globale, le emissioni in atmosfera e l’uso delle tecnologie sono temi di rilevanza fondamentale. L’applicazione delle stesse è stata analizzata anche rispetto alle logiche della finanziarizzazione del mercato dei crediti di carbonio. A causa della complessità dell’analisi, lo studio della normativa ambientale dell' Unione Europea deve necessariamente includere la sua evoluzione e le modifiche più recenti, così come l’iter della loro applicazione nei Stati membri. Nel mio lavoro di tesi, ho cercato pertanto di rispondere a due domande : 1. Il Protocollo di Kyoto ha raggiunto i suoi obiettivi principali? 2. La direttiva IPPC-IED e l’uso delle BAT hanno raggiunto i loro obiettivi principali? 1. Allo stato attuale possiamo concludere che gli obiettivi del Protocollo di Kyoto, per il primo periodo di impegno terminato nel 2012, non sono stati raggiunti. Inoltre, non possiamo affermare che gli obiettivi siano stati in parte soddisfatti, perché la riduzioni delle emissioni dei gas GHG in alcuni paesi rappresentano quantità non significative rispetto alla crescita delle emissioni a livello mondiale. Anche se l'obiettivo di riduzione di alcuni Paesi inseriti nell’ allegato I del Protocollo di Kyoto sono stati raggiunti, d’altra parte si può osservare che le emissioni globali sono cresciute in modo esponenziale. Le attività LULUCF rappresentano un vantaggio in termini cost-effective nella mitigazione delle emissioni di CO2. La mitigazione non può essere sempre raggiunta con il solo aumento del periodo di rotazione delle foreste, perché ad di là degli obiettivi del Protocollo di Kyoto, ci sono gli interessi economici dei proprietari privati del suolo forestale. Il prezzo di vendita del legno influisce positivamente o negativamente il mercato del carbonio e viceversa; ovvero il pagamento delle unità di carbonio sequestrato può migliorare la sostenibilità finanziaria nel gestire le foreste in lunghi periodi di rotazione. Le attività LULUCF sono cost-effective solo quando i costi marginali e i costi di transazione sono bassi. 2. Lo stato di applicazione della direttiva IPPC-IED in tutti gli Stati membri dell' Unione Europea sembrerebbe essere buono, ma non ancora soddisfacente, perché la maggior parte delle principali industrie europee non sono del tutto conformi allo spirito della direttiva. Sembrerebbe indispensabile un miglioramento dei BREFs e delle BATs per ridurre le emissioni industriali inquinanti a livelli accettabili sia per la tutela ambientale che per la salute umana. La crisi economica ha influito sulla decrescita delle emissioni, ma la tendenza alla riduzione dei gas inquinanti non sembrerebbe essere ancora sostenuta da efficaci politiche nel regolamentare i livelli di emissione.
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