• Energy Research

Abstract Background Fuelwood is considered to be the primary source of cooking energy in Tanzania and, due to ongoing deforestation, access to fuelwood is becoming more cumbersome. On-farm agroforestry systems can reduce dependency on off-farm fuel; however, the output of on-farm produced fuel is typically uncertain as production potentials are often not known. In this paper, we have developed allometric equations to model the above-ground woody biomass (AGWB) production from intercropped Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp (Gliricidia) shrubs and Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (pigeon pea) plants. Methods We used a destructive sampling approach, for measuring the dendrometric characteristics, such as the root collar diameter at a 20 cm stem height (RCD20) and the stem height to estimate the AGWB production. The models are based on 112 Gliricidia and 80 pigeon pea observations from annually pruned plants. Seven allometric equations were fitted to derive the best-fit models for the AGWB production. Results We found that using a natural log-transformed linear model with RCD20 as a single predictor variable provides the highest explanatory value to estimate the AGWB production (Gliricidia: R2 = 95.7%, pigeon pea: R2 = 91.4%) while meeting Ordinary Least Square (OLS) estimator requirements. Adding stem height as an additional variable to predict the AGWB production does not improve model accuracy enough to justify the extra work for including it. Conclusions While on-farm pigeon pea plants produced a stable amount of woody biomass per annum, annual fuelwood production from Gliricidia shrubs increased over the years. Compared to the annual fuelwood consumption data from the literature, our results show that on-farm produced fuelwood can substantially offset the demand for off-farm fuel, potentially resulting in household fuelwood autarky.

Sustainable intensification (SI) is promoted as a rural development paradigm for sub-Saharan Africa. Achieving SI requires smallholder farmers to have access to information that is context-specific, increases their decision-making capacities, and adapts to changing environments. Current extension services often struggle to address these needs. New mobile phone-based services can help. In order to enhance the public extension service in Tanzania, we created a digital service that addresses smallholder farmers’ different information needs for implementing SI. Using a co-design methodology – User-Centered Design – we elicited feedback from farmers and extension agents in Tanzania to create a new digital information service, called Ushauri. This automated hotline gives farmers access to a set of pre-recorded messages. Additionally, farmers can ask questions in a mailbox. Extension agents then listen to these questions through an online platform, where they record and send replies via automated push-calls. A test with 97 farmers in Tanzania showed that farmers actively engaged with the service to access agricultural advice. Extension agents were able to answer questions with reduced workload compared to conventional communication channels. This study illustrates how User-Centered Design can be used to develop information services for complex and resource-restricted smallholder farming contexts.

Crop adaptation to climate change requires accelerated crop variety introduction accompanied by recommendations to help farmers match the best variety with their field contexts. Existing approaches to generate these recommendations lack scalability and predictivity in marginal production environments. We tested if crowdsourced citizen science can address this challenge, producing empirical data across geographic space that, in aggregate, can characterize varietal climatic responses. We present the results of 12,409 farmer-managed experimental plots of common bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Nicaragua, durum wheat ( Triticum durum Desf.) in Ethiopia, and bread wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) in India. Farmers collaborated as citizen scientists, each ranking the performance of three varieties randomly assigned from a larger set. We show that the approach can register known specific effects of climate variation on varietal performance. The prediction of variety performance from seasonal climatic variables was generalizable across growing seasons. We show that these analyses can improve variety recommendations in four aspects: reduction of climate bias, incorporation of seasonal climate forecasts, risk analysis, and geographic extrapolation. Variety recommendations derived from the citizen science trials led to important differences with previous recommendations.

Bien que la commercialisation et la diversification des systèmes agricoles et d'élevage aient été identifiées comme des stratégies mondiales clés pour l'adaptation et l'atténuation du changement climatique, on en sait moins sur les impacts sexospécifiques à grande échelle qui sont impliqués dans ces transformations chez les petits exploitants agricoles et les éleveurs. Cette étude explore ces impacts de genre dans différents systèmes agricoles et typologies de ménages répondant au genre en utilisant les données de l'Enquête sur les indicateurs multiples des ménages ruraux (RHoMIS) dans 2 859 ménages dans trois pays d'Afrique de l'Est – Éthiopie, Kenya et Tanzanie. Les scores de contrôle des femmes sur les revenus ou les denrées alimentaires produites par des activités agricoles et non agricoles étaient les plus élevés dans les systèmes agricoles qui avaient plus de terres et plus de bétail. Cependant, la commercialisation croissante – définie ici comme l'importance croissante des ventes de cultures et de bétail pour les ménages agricoles – a entraîné une baisse globale du contrôle des femmes dans tous les systèmes agricoles et dans les typologies de ménages répondant au genre. En revanche, la diversification des cultures et du bétail a été positivement associée au contrôle des femmes dans les typologies genre-répondant-ménage. L'analyse de cultures et de produits d'élevage spécifiques à travers les systèmes agricoles et les typologies de répondants a révélé que les femmes ont beaucoup plus de contrôle sur les décisions liées à la consommation que sur les décisions liées aux ventes, bien que l'écart entre les deux soit moins prononcé dans les produits d'élevage de moindre valeur (poulets, œufs). Cependant, les analyses suggèrent qu'à mesure que les ventes de cultures et de bétail augmentent, le contrôle des femmes sur ces zones pourrait probablement diminuer, quelle que soit l'activité spécifique. Les auteurs concluent que les approches d'adaptation ou d'atténuation du changement climatique qui reposent sur une orientation croissante de la production des petits exploitants vers le marché intensifieront probablement le contrôle des hommes sur les avantages de la production, tandis que la diversification aura probablement un impact plus positif sur le contrôle des femmes. Ainsi, les stratégies d'adaptation au climat favorisant une diversification accrue auront probablement un impact plus positif sur les femmes petits exploitants que la commercialisation seule. Les auteurs recommandent que lorsque la commercialisation est l'intervention cible, elle doit être accompagnée d'une analyse différenciée selon le sexe des compromis et des risques pour atténuer les conséquences négatives potentielles montrées dans cette étude. Si bien la comercialización y diversificación de los sistemas agrícolas y ganaderos se han identificado como estrategias globales clave para la adaptación y mitigación del cambio climático, se sabe menos sobre los impactos de género a gran escala que están implicados en estas transformaciones entre los pequeños agricultores y ganaderos. Este estudio explora estos impactos de género en diferentes sistemas agrícolas y tipologías de hogares que responden a las cuestiones de género utilizando datos de la Encuesta de Indicadores Múltiples de Hogares Rurales (RHoMIS) en 2.859 hogares en tres países de África Oriental: Etiopía, Kenia y Tanzania. Las puntuaciones de control femenino sobre los ingresos o los alimentos producidos tanto dentro como fuera de las actividades agrícolas fueron más altas en los sistemas agrícolas que tenían más tierra y más ganado. Sin embargo, el aumento de la comercialización, definida en este documento como la creciente importancia de las ventas de cultivos y ganado a los hogares agrícolas, resultó en una disminución general del control femenino en todos los sistemas agrícolas y tipologías de hogares que responden al género. Por el contrario, la diversificación de cultivos y ganado se asoció positivamente con el control femenino en todas las tipologías de hogares que respondieron al género. El análisis de cultivos y productos ganaderos específicos en los sistemas agrícolas y las tipologías de los encuestados reveló que las mujeres tienen un control mucho mayor sobre las decisiones relacionadas con el consumo que sobre las decisiones relacionadas con las ventas, aunque la brecha entre las dos fue menos pronunciada en los productos ganaderos de menor valor (pollos, huevos). Sin embargo, los análisis sugieren que a medida que aumente la venta de cultivos y ganado, el control femenino sobre estas áreas probablemente podría disminuir, independientemente de la actividad específica. Los autores concluyen que los enfoques para adaptarse o mitigar el cambio climático que dependen de una mayor orientación al mercado de la producción de los pequeños agricultores probablemente intensificarán el control de los hombres sobre los beneficios de la producción, mientras que la diversificación probablemente tendrá un impacto más positivo en el control femenino. Por lo tanto, las estrategias de adaptación al clima que promueven una mayor diversificación probablemente tendrán un impacto más positivo en las pequeñas agricultoras que la comercialización sola. Los autores recomiendan que cuando la comercialización sea la intervención objetivo, debe ir acompañada de un análisis diferenciado de género de las compensaciones y los riesgos para mitigar las posibles consecuencias negativas que se muestran en este estudio. While the commercialization and diversification of agricultural and livestock systems have been identified as key global strategies for climate change adaptation and mitigation, less is known as to the large-scale gendered impacts that are implicated in these transformations among smallholder crop and livestock farmers. This study explores these gender impacts across different farming systems and gender-respondent-household typologies using data from the Rural Household Multiple Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) in 2,859 households in three East African countries – Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. Female control scores over incomes or foodstuffs produced through both on and off farm activities were highest in farming systems that had more land and more livestock. However, increasing commercialization – defined herein as the increasing importance of crop and livestock sales to farm households – resulted in an overall decline in female control across all farming systems and gender-respondent-household typologies. In contrast, crop and livestock diversification were positively associated with female control across gender-respondent-household typologies. Analysis of specific crops and livestock products across farming systems and respondent typologies revealed women have far greater control over decisions related to consumption than decisions related to sales, although the gap between the two were less pronounced in lesser-valued livestock products (chickens, eggs). However, the analyses suggest that as sale of crops and livestock increase, female control over these areas could likely diminish, regardless of specific activity. The authors conclude that approaches to adapt to or mitigate climate change that rely on increasing market orientation of smallholder production will likely intensify men's control over benefits from production, whereas diversification will likely have a more positive impact on female control. Thus, climate adaptation strategies promoting increased diversification will likely have a more positive impact on women smallholders than commercialization alone. The authors recommend that when commercialization is the target intervention, it must be accompanied by a gender differentiated analysis of trade-offs and risks to mitigate the potential negative consequences shown in this study. في حين تم تحديد تسويق وتنويع النظم الزراعية والحيوانية كاستراتيجيات عالمية رئيسية للتكيف مع تغير المناخ والتخفيف من حدته، إلا أنه لا يُعرف الكثير عن الآثار الجنسانية واسعة النطاق المتورطة في هذه التحولات بين صغار مزارعي المحاصيل والثروة الحيوانية. تستكشف هذه الدراسة هذه الآثار الجنسانية عبر أنظمة زراعية مختلفة وأنماط الأسر المعيشية بين الجنسين باستخدام بيانات من مسح المؤشرات المتعددة للأسر المعيشية الريفية (RHoMIS) في 2859 أسرة في ثلاثة بلدان في شرق أفريقيا – إثيوبيا وكينيا وتنزانيا. كانت درجات سيطرة الإناث على الدخل أو المواد الغذائية المنتجة من خلال الأنشطة الزراعية وخارجها أعلى في النظم الزراعية التي تحتوي على المزيد من الأراضي والمزيد من الماشية. ومع ذلك، فإن زيادة التسويق – التي تم تعريفها هنا على أنها الأهمية المتزايدة لمبيعات المحاصيل والماشية للأسر الزراعية – أدت إلى انخفاض عام في سيطرة الإناث على جميع النظم الزراعية وأنواع الأسر المعيشية المراسلة بين الجنسين. وعلى النقيض من ذلك، ارتبط تنويع المحاصيل والثروة الحيوانية ارتباطًا إيجابيًا بالسيطرة الأنثوية عبر أنماط الأسر المعيشية المستجيبة للنوع الاجتماعي. كشف تحليل المحاصيل والمنتجات الحيوانية المحددة عبر النظم الزراعية وأنماط المستجيبين أن النساء لديهن سيطرة أكبر بكثير على القرارات المتعلقة بالاستهلاك من القرارات المتعلقة بالمبيعات، على الرغم من أن الفجوة بين الاثنين كانت أقل وضوحًا في المنتجات الحيوانية الأقل قيمة (الدجاج والبيض). ومع ذلك، تشير التحليلات إلى أنه مع زيادة بيع المحاصيل والثروة الحيوانية، من المحتمل أن تتضاءل سيطرة الإناث على هذه المناطق، بغض النظر عن نشاط معين. وخلص المؤلفون إلى أن نهج التكيف مع تغير المناخ أو التخفيف من حدته التي تعتمد على زيادة التوجه السوقي لإنتاج أصحاب الحيازات الصغيرة من المرجح أن تكثف سيطرة الرجال على فوائد الإنتاج، في حين أن التنويع من المرجح أن يكون له تأثير أكثر إيجابية على سيطرة الإناث. وبالتالي، من المرجح أن يكون لاستراتيجيات التكيف مع المناخ التي تعزز زيادة التنويع تأثير إيجابي على صاحبات الحيازات الصغيرة أكثر من التسويق وحده. يوصي المؤلفون بأنه عندما يكون التسويق هو التدخل المستهدف، يجب أن يكون مصحوبًا بتحليل متمايز بين الجنسين للمقايضات والمخاطر للتخفيف من العواقب السلبية المحتملة الموضحة في هذه الدراسة.

ABSTRACTParticipatory methods to characterize farmers’ needs and preferences play an important role in plant breeding to ensure that new varieties fulfill the needs and expectations of end users. Different farmer-participatory methods for priority setting exist, each one responding differently to trade-offs between various requirements, such as replicability, simplicity, or granularity of the results. All available methods, however, require training, academic skill, and staff time of specially qualified professionals. Breeding and variety replacement may be accelerated by empowering non-academic organizations, such as NGOs and farmer organizations, to carry out farmer-participatory priority setting. But for this use context, currently no suitable method is available. A new method is needed that demands relatively low skill levels from enumerators and respondents, engages farmers without the need for extrinsic incentives, and gives statistically robust results. To achieve these objectives, we followed prin...

AbstractLocation‐specific information is required to support decision making in crop variety management, especially under increasingly challenging climate conditions. Data synthesis can aggregate data from individual trials to produce information that supports decision making in plant breeding programs, extension services, and of farmers. Data from on‐farm trials using the novel approach of triadic comparison of technologies (tricot) are increasingly available, from which more insights could be gained using a data synthesis approach. The objective of our study was to present the applicability of a rank‐based data synthesis approach to several datasets from tricot trials to generate location‐specific information supporting decision making in crop variety management. Our study focuses on tricot data from 14 trials of common bean (Phaseolus vulgarisL.) performed between 2015 and 2018 across four countries in Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua). The combined data of 17 common bean genotypes were rank aggregated and analyzed with the Plackett–Luce model. Model‐based recursive partitioning was used to assess the influence of spatially explicit environmental covariates on the performance of common bean genotypes. Location‐specific performance was predicted for the three main growing seasons in Central America. We demonstrate how the rank‐based data synthesis methodology allows integrating tricot trial data from heterogenous sources to provide location‐specific information to support decision making in crop variety management. Maps of genotype performance can support decision making in crop variety evaluation such as variety recommendations to farmers and variety release processes.

Agricultural development must integrate multiple objectives at the same time, including food security, income, and environmental sustainability. To help achieve these objectives, development practitioners need to prioritize concrete livelihood practices to promote to rural households. But trade-offs between objectives can lead to dilemmas in selecting practices. In addition, heterogeneity among farming households requires targeting different strategies to different types of households. Existing diversity of household resources and activities, however, may also bear solutions. We explored a new, empirical research method that identifies promising options for multi-objective development by focusing on existing cases of strong multi-dimensional household performance. The “Positive Deviance” approach signifies identifying locally viable livelihood practices from diverse households that achieve stronger performance than comparable households in the same area. These practices are promising for other local households in comparable resource contexts. The approach has been used in other domains, such as child nutrition, but has not yet been fully implemented for agricultural development with a focus on the simultaneous achievement of multiple objectives. To test our adapted version of the Positive Deviance approach, we used a quantitative survey of over 500 rural households in South-Eastern Tanzania. We identified 54 households with outstanding relative performance regarding five key development dimensions (food security, income, nutrition, environmental sustainability, and social equity). We found that, compared to other households with similar resource levels, these “positive deviants” performed strongest for food security, but only slightly better for social equity. We then re-visited a diverse sub-sample for qualitative interviews, and identified 14 uncommon, “deviant” practices that plausibly contributed to the households’ superior outcomes. We illustrate how these practices can inform specific recommendations of practices for other local households in comparable resource contexts. The study demonstrates how, with the Positive Deviance approach, empirical observations of individual, outstanding households can inform discussions about locally viable agricultural development solutions in diverse household context.