• Energy Research

The fate of humans and insects intertwine, especially through the medium of plants. Global environmental change, including land transformation and contamination, is causing concerning insect diversity loss, articulated in the companion review Scientists' warning to humanity on insect extinctions. Yet, despite a sound philosophical foundation, recognized ethical values, and scientific evidence, globally we are performing poorly at instigating effective insect conservation. As insects are a major component of the tapestry of life, insect conservation would do well to integrate better with overall biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. This also involves popularizing insects, especially through use of iconic species, through more media coverage, and more inclusive education. Insect conservationists need to liaise better with decision makers, stakeholders, and land managers, especially at the conceptually familiar scale of the landscape. Enough evidence is now available, and synthesized here, which illustrates that multiple strategies work at local levels towards saving insects. We now need to expand these locally-crafted strategies globally. Tangible actions include ensuring maintenance of biotic complexity, especially through improving temporal and spatial heterogeneity, functional connectivity, and metapopulation dynamics, while maintaining unique habitats, across landscape mosaics, as well as instigating better communication. Key is to have more expansive sustainable agriculture and forestry, improved regulation and prevention of environmental risks, and greater recognition of protected areas alongside agro-ecology in novel landscapes. Future-proofing insect diversity is now critical, with the benefits far reaching, including continued provision of valuable ecosystem services and the conservation of a rich and impressive component of Earth's biodiversity.

AbstractMountain species have evolved important genetic differentiation due to past climatic fluctuations. The genetic uniqueness of many of these lineages is now at risk due to global warming. Here, we analyse allozyme polymorphisms of 1306 individuals (36 populations) of the mountain butterfly Erebia manto and perform Species Distribution Models (SDMs). As a consensus of analyses, we obtained six most likely genetic clusters: (i) Pyrenees with Massif Central; (ii) Vosges; (iii–v) Alps including the Slovakian Carpathians; (vi) southern Carpathians. The Vosges population showed the strongest genetic split from all other populations, being almost as strong as the split between E. manto and its sister species Erebia eriphyle. The distinctiveness of the Pyrenees‐Massif Central group and of the southern Carpathians group from all other groups is also quite high. All three groups are assumed to have survived more than one full glacial–interglacial cycle close to their current distributions with up‐hill and down‐slope shifts conforming climatic conditions. In contrast with these well‐differentiated groups, the three groups present in the Alps and the Slovakian Carpathians show a much shallower genetic structure and thus also should be of a more recent origin. As predicted by our SDM projections, rising temperatures will strongly impact the distribution of E. manto. While the populations in the Alps are predicted to shrink, the survival of the three lineages present here should not be at risk. The situation of the three other lineages is quite different. All models predict the extinction of the Vosges lineage in the wake of global warming, and also the southern Carpathians and Pyrenees‐Massif Central lineages might be at high risk to disappear. Thus, albeit global warming will therefore be unlikely to threaten E. manto as a species, an important proportion of the species’ intraspecific differentiation and thus uniqueness might be lost.

AbstractLiving in a warming world requires adaptations to altered annual temperature regimes. In Europe, spring is starting earlier, and the vegetation period is ending later in the year. These climatic changes are leading not only to shifts in distribution ranges of flora and fauna, but also to phenological shifts. Using long‐term observation data of butterflies and moths collected during the past decades across northern Austria, we test for phenological shifts over time and changes in the number of generations. On average, Lepidoptera adults emerged earlier in the year and tended to extend their flight periods in autumn. Many species increased the annual number of generations. These changes were more pronounced at lower altitudes than at higher altitudes, leading to an altered phenological zonation. Our findings indicate that climate change does not only affect community composition but also the life history of insects. Increased activity and reproductive periods might alter Lepidoptera–host plant associations and food webs.

Multi-locus monomorphism in microsatellites is practically non-existent, with one notable exception, the island fox (Urocyon littoralis dickeyi) population on San Nicolas island off the coast of southern California, having been called “the most monomorphic sexually reproducing animal population yet reported”. Here, we present the unprecedented long-term monomorphism in relict populations of the highly endangered Parnassius apollo butterfly, which is protected by CITES and classified as “threatened” by the IUCN. The species is disjunctly distributed throughout the western Palaearctic and has occurred in several small remnant populations outside its main distribution area. We screened 78 individuals from 1 such relict area (Mosel valley, Germany) at 16 allozyme and 6 microsatellite loci with the latter known to be polymorphic in this species elsewhere. From the same area, we also genotyped 55 museum specimens sampled from 1895 to 1989 to compare historical and present levels of genetic diversity. However, none of all these temporal populations yielded any polymorphism. Thus, present and historical butterflies were completely monomorphic for the same fixed allele. This is the second study to report multi-locus monomorphism for microsatellites in an animal population and the first one to prove this monomorphism not to be the consequence of recent factors. Possible explanations for our results are a very low long-term effective population size and/or a strong historic bottleneck or founder event. Since the studied population has just recovered from a recent population breakdown (second half of twentieth century) and no signs of inbreeding depression have been detected, natural selection might have purged the population of weakly deleterious alleles, thus rendering it less susceptible to the usual negative corollaries of high levels of homozygosity and low effective population size.

Nous nous appuyons ici sur le manifeste « Avertissement des scientifiques du monde à l'humanité », publié par l'Alliance des scientifiques du monde. En tant que groupe de biologistes de la conservation profondément préoccupés par le déclin des populations d'insectes, nous passons en revue ici ce que nous savons sur les facteurs de l'extinction des insectes, leurs conséquences et comment les extinctions peuvent avoir un impact négatif sur l'humanité. Nous causons l'extinction des insectes en entraînant la perte, la dégradation et la fragmentation de l'habitat, l'utilisation de substances polluantes et nocives, la propagation d'espèces envahissantes, le changement climatique mondial, la surexploitation directe et la co-extinction d'espèces dépendantes d'autres espèces. Avec l'extinction des insectes, nous perdons beaucoup plus que les espèces. Nous perdons l'abondance et la biomasse des insectes, la diversité à travers l'espace et le temps avec une homogénéisation conséquente, de grandes parties de l'arbre de vie, des fonctions et des traits écologiques uniques et des parties fondamentales de vastes réseaux d'interactions biotiques. De telles pertes entraînent le déclin des principaux services écosystémiques dont dépend l'humanité. De la pollinisation et de la décomposition aux ressources pour de nouveaux médicaments, en passant par l'indication de la qualité de l'habitat et bien d'autres, les insectes fournissent des services essentiels et irremplaçables. Nous appelons à une action urgente pour combler les principales lacunes en matière de connaissances et freiner l'extinction des insectes. Un investissement dans des programmes de recherche qui génèrent des stratégies locales, régionales et mondiales pour contrer cette tendance est essentiel. Des solutions sont disponibles et réalisables, mais une action urgente est nécessaire dès maintenant pour répondre à nos intentions. Aquí nos basamos en el manifiesto 'Advertencia de los Científicos del Mundo a la Humanidad', emitido por la Alianza de Científicos del Mundo. Como grupo de biólogos conservadores profundamente preocupados por la disminución de las poblaciones de insectos, aquí revisamos lo que sabemos sobre los impulsores de las extinciones de insectos, sus consecuencias y cómo las extinciones pueden afectar negativamente a la humanidad. Estamos causando extinciones de insectos al impulsar la pérdida, degradación y fragmentación del hábitat, el uso de sustancias contaminantes y nocivas, la propagación de especies invasoras, el cambio climático global, la sobreexplotación directa y la coextinción de especies dependientes de otras especies. Con las extinciones de insectos, perdemos mucho más que especies. Perdemos abundancia y biomasa de insectos, diversidad a través del espacio y el tiempo con la consiguiente homogeneización, grandes partes del árbol de la vida, funciones y rasgos ecológicos únicos y partes fundamentales de extensas redes de interacciones bióticas. Tales pérdidas conducen a la disminución de los servicios ecosistémicos clave de los que depende la humanidad. Desde la polinización y la descomposición, hasta ser recursos para nuevos medicamentos, la indicación de la calidad del hábitat y muchos otros, los insectos brindan servicios esenciales e insustituibles. Hacemos un llamado a la acción urgente para cerrar las brechas de conocimiento clave y frenar las extinciones de insectos. Es fundamental una inversión en programas de investigación que generen estrategias locales, regionales y globales que contrarresten esta tendencia. Las soluciones están disponibles y son implementables, pero se necesita una acción urgente ahora para que coincidan con nuestras intenciones. Here we build on the manifesto 'World Scientists' Warning to Humanity, issued by the Alliance of World Scientists. As a group of conservation biologists deeply concerned about the decline of insect populations, we here review what we know about the drivers of insect extinctions, their consequences, and how extinctions can negatively impact humanity. We are causing insect extinctions by driving habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, use of polluting and harmful substances, the spread of invasive species, global climate change, direct overexploitation, and co-extinction of species dependent on other species. With insect extinctions, we lose much more than species. We lose abundance and biomass of insects, diversity across space and time with consequent homogenization, large parts of the tree of life, unique ecological functions and traits, and fundamental parts of extensive networks of biotic interactions. Such losses lead to the decline of key ecosystem services on which humanity depends. From pollination and decomposition, to being resources for new medicines, habitat quality indication and many others, insects provide essential and irreplaceable services. We appeal for urgent action to close key knowledge gaps and curb insect extinctions. An investment in research programs that generate local, regional and global strategies that counter this trend is essential. Solutions are available and implementable, but urgent action is needed now to match our intentions. هنا نبني على بيان "علماء العالم" تحذير للبشرية، الصادر عن تحالف علماء العالم. بصفتنا مجموعة من علماء أحياء الحفظ الذين يشعرون بقلق عميق إزاء انخفاض أعداد الحشرات، نستعرض هنا ما نعرفه عن دوافع انقراض الحشرات وعواقبها وكيف يمكن للانقراض أن يؤثر سلبًا على البشرية. نحن نتسبب في انقراض الحشرات من خلال التسبب في فقدان الموائل وتدهورها وتجزئتها، واستخدام المواد الملوثة والضارة، وانتشار الأنواع الغازية، وتغير المناخ العالمي، والاستغلال المفرط المباشر، والانقراض المشترك للأنواع التي تعتمد على الأنواع الأخرى. مع انقراض الحشرات، نفقد أكثر بكثير من الأنواع. نفقد الوفرة والكتلة الحيوية للحشرات، والتنوع عبر المكان والزمان مع ما يترتب على ذلك من التجانس، وأجزاء كبيرة من شجرة الحياة، والوظائف والسمات البيئية الفريدة، والأجزاء الأساسية للشبكات الواسعة من التفاعلات الحيوية. وتؤدي هذه الخسائر إلى انخفاض خدمات النظام الإيكولوجي الرئيسية التي تعتمد عليها البشرية. من التلقيح والتحلل، إلى كونها موارد للأدوية الجديدة، ومؤشرات جودة الموائل وغيرها الكثير، توفر الحشرات خدمات أساسية لا يمكن الاستغناء عنها. ندعو إلى اتخاذ إجراءات عاجلة لسد الفجوات المعرفية الرئيسية والحد من انقراض الحشرات. ومن الضروري الاستثمار في البرامج البحثية التي تولد استراتيجيات محلية وإقليمية وعالمية تتصدى لهذا الاتجاه. الحلول متاحة وقابلة للتنفيذ، ولكن هناك حاجة إلى اتخاذ إجراءات عاجلة الآن لتتناسب مع نوايانا.

AbstractClimate change impacts biodiversity and is driving range shifts of species and populations across the globe. To understand the effects of climate warming on biota, long-term observations of the occurrence of species and detailed knowledge on their ecology and life-history is crucial. Mountain species particularly suffer under climate warming and often respond to environmental changes by altitudinal range shifts. We assessed long-term distribution trends of mountain butterflies across the eastern Alps and calculated species’ specific annual range shifts based on field observations and species distribution models, counterbalancing the potential drawbacks of both approaches. We also compiled details on the ecology, behaviour and life-history, and the climate niche of each species assessed. We found that the highest altitudinal maxima were observed recently in the majority of cases, while the lowest altitudes of observations were recorded before 1980. Mobile and generalist species with a broad ecological amplitude tended to move uphill more than specialist and sedentary species. As main drivers we identified climatic conditions and topographic variables, such as insolation and solar irradiation. This study provides important evidence for responses of high mountain taxa to rapid climate change. Our study underlines the advantage of combining historical surveys and museum collection data with cutting-edge analyses.