• Energy Research

Introduction: During the COVID-19 lockdown significant improvements in urban air quality were detected due to the absence of motorized vehicles. It is crucial to perpetuate such improvements to maintain and improve public health simultaneously. Therefore, this exploratory study approached bicycle infrastructure in the case of Munich (Germany) to find out which specific bicycle lanes meet the demands of its users, how such infrastructure looks like, and which characteristics are potentially important. Methods: To identify patterns of bicycle infrastructure in Munich exploratory data is collected over the timespan of three consecutive weeks in August by a bicycle rider at different times of the day. We measure position, time, velocity, pulse, level of sound, temperature and humidity. In the next step, we qualitatively identified different segments and applied a cluster analysis to quantitatively describe those segments regarding the measured factors. The data allows us to identify which bicycle lanes have a particular set of measurements, indicating a favorable construction for bike riders. Results: In the exploratory dataset, five relevant segment clusters are identified: viscous, slow, inconsistent, accelerating, and best-performance. The segments that are identified as best-performance enable bicycle riders to travel efficiently and safely at amenable distances in urban areas. They are characterized by their width, little to no interaction with motorized traffic as well as pedestrians, and effective traffic light control. Discussion: We propose two levels of discussion: (1) revolves around what kind of bicycles lanes from the case study can help to increase bicycle usage in urban areas, while simultaneously improving public health and mitigating climate change challenges and (2) discussing the possibilities, limitations and necessary improvements of this kind of exploratory methodology.

Citizen energy in general and renewable energy communities (RECs) in particular are becoming key vehicles for decentralisation, but also for the democratisation of the energy system. These initiatives are now more diverse than ever and are likely to continue to act as incubators for significant projects in the transition to a renewable energy system. Beside the legal, regulatory, and financial challenges, there are several socio-economic and regulatory barriers that hinder the implementation of community energy projects. For this reason, policy learning and the dissemination of good/best practices that are transferable also to other contexts are important. This is an aspect that has not yet attracted much investigation, and only a few studies have explored the importance of transfer activities for the implementation of REC initiatives and their motives. This article aimed to address this knowledge gap by focussing on the transfer processes of best practices initiated in a particular region and discusses how these can be adapted and transferred to other contexts. We analysed the transfer case of a community renewable energy initiative, the multifunctional energy gardens, from the Netherlands to the German federal State of Thuringia, and extracted lessons with an overall validity for the transferability of drivers and success factors. We show how examples from other contexts with similar enabling conditions can represent significant foundations on which to build an effective strategy and what framework conditions are necessary to enhance the uptake of pervasive community energy initiatives in regions with low community energy development.

With the ‘Clean Energy for all Europeans’ package the European Commission intended to put consumers ‘at the heart’ of EU energy policies. The recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) acknowledged the importance of energy communities for the energy transition. It includes new provisions for renewable energy communities (RECs) empowering them to participate in the energy market. By 30 June 2021, Member States were requested to transpose the definition of RECs, their rights and duties and develop enabling frameworks. Furthermore, Member States shall take into account the specificities of RECs when designing support schemes in order to allow them to compete for support on an equal footing with other market participants. This document, Deliverable 7.1 of the Horizon 2020 project COME RES, analyses the progress in transposing and implementing the provisions contained in RED II that apply to RECs in the nine COME RES countries, namely Belgium (Flanders), Germany, Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal and Spain. The aim of the report is to provide an updated and detailed review of the enabling frameworks for RECs as specified in Art. 22(4) of RED II and to scrutinise the extent to which the analysed countries consider the specificities of RECs when designing support schemes for renewable energy sources, pursuant to Art. 22(7) of RED II. In addition to the qualitative assessment, the COME RES partners carried out a quantitative assessment of the transposition performance. This covers three sections: (1) definition, rights and market activities of RECs, (2) key elements of enabling frameworks pursuant to RED II Art. 22(4) and (3) the consideration of REC specificities in support scheme designs and other economic incentives. The individual country reports and the calibration table can be found in the annex of this report. Methodologically, the individual country policy assessments are mainly based on desk research, particularly analysis of legal documents, including the integrated National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs), and secondary literature. They also integrate observations and interim findings of the country desk events in the COME RES partner countries. This report takes into account the policy developments until 15 July 2022. Progress and performance of transposition varies considerably among the analysed countries. Thus, Belgium (Flanders) and Italy have made the most progress in transposing the definitions, rights, obligations and market activities of RECs. Portugal and Spain have also made good progress, but there are still several key provisions which are not transposed or specified yet. In Latvia, amendments to relevant laws containing key provisions of RECs and citizen energy communities (CECs) have been adopted in July 2022. These amendments provide a general framework; many details have to be worked out by subsequent governmental regulations. Although in Germany ownership of renewable energy installations by individuals or communities has a long tradition, the previous Federal government failed to timely and properly transpose the RED II and its provisions for RECs. Under the new government, the transposition process and the creation of an enabling framework gained momentum, but important transposition gaps still remain (e.g., energy sharing). In the Netherlands, only a draft legislation exists and merges RECs and CECs into one concept. Most criteria of the RED II definition of RECs are covered in the draft legislation. In Poland, transposition is lagging behind compared to other COME RES countries. In Norway, the EU Directives do not automatically apply, but rather depend on negotiations between the EU and the EEA/European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Currently, RED II is still under review by the EEA/EFTA. In spite of some positive developments in the field of collective self-consumption at the building/block level, much work is still necessary to transpose the requirements of RED II. Formal compliance with the provisions of RED II and literal transposition of the key principles and criteria (“copy and paste” approach) is by far not sufficient to effectively promote and facilitate the development of RECs. The RED II contains many indefinite legal concepts that have to be ‘filled with life and elaborated on what they mean at the national level. These affect membership and governance aspects, spatial and system-related boundaries, but also technical parameters, activities and integration into energy markets. Depending on how governments interpret and specify those indefinite legal terms, the national provisions for RECs might turn out as a barrier or enabler for RECs. Besides definitions and acknowledgements of specific market activities, the creation of an effective enabling framework requires fine-tuning of the existing energy governance and physical infrastructure to accommodate RECs, especially in relation to incentives, subsidies, and access to energy markets. So far, none of the countries under scrutiny has developed an enabling framework to promote and facilitate the development of RECs that would fully or largely comply with the minimum requirements listed in RED II. In most countries, enabling frameworks are still underdeveloped or fragmentary. However, the implementation of enabling frameworks is progressing in almost all countries, albeit with different commitment, pace, and support. Among the countries analysed, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain appear to be the most advanced countries in this respect.

ZusammenfassungDie Energiewende stellt eine grundlegende Transformation in der Erzeugungs- und Verteilstruktur des deutschen Energiesystems dar. Durch verschiedene Fördermechanismen wie das EEG konnten neue, semiprofessionelle Anlagenbetreiber in den Energiemarkt eintreten. Standortentscheidungen wurden entprofessionalisiert und die Bedeutung von behavioristischen Standortfaktoren, wie z. B. das soziale Umfeld, die Sicherung der eigenen Lebensgrundlage oder die persönliche Konstitution gewannen an Bedeutung. Dieser Wandel stellt das Voranschreiten der Energiewende vor neue Herausforderungen. Da bisher wenig Kenntnis über das Handeln und die Faktoren, die zu einer Standortentscheidung bei neuen Anlagenbetreibern führen, besteht, ist es das Ziel dieser Studie, Anlagenbetreiber von erneuerbaren Energien nach deren Standortverhalten zu klassifizieren. Dazu wurden mithilfe eines standardisierten Fragebogens Anlagenbetreiber in den Planungsregionen Augsburg (Bayern) und Lausitz-Spreewald (Brandenburg) befragt. In der nachfolgenden Clusteranalyse wurden 4 raumrelevante Betreibergruppen klassifiziert: Überregionale, Regionale, Kommunale und Kleinbäuerliche Betreiber. Diese Gruppen unterscheiden sich hinsichtlich ihres raumrelevanten Standort- und Betriebsverhaltens und weisen daher unterschiedliche Eignungen für Räume mit unterschiedlichen Eigenschaften auf. Um diese Eignung räumlich sichtbar zu machen, wurde abschließend eine GIS-Analyse durchgeführt, um am Beispiel der Planungsregion Augsburg aufzuzeigen, welche Betreibergruppe an welchem Standort am geeignetsten ist. In Augsburg können somit die Kommunalen Betreiber aufgrund ihrer hohen Ortskenntnis und starken lokalen Eingebundenheit an vielen Standorten raumverträglich Energieanlagen errichten. Der vorliegende Ansatz bietet somit das Potenzial, den Ausbau der Energiewende raum- und sozialverträglich zu gestalten.

The implementation of many small power stations compensates the closing of powerful large power plants as part of the German Energy Transition is compensated. It is unclear how site decisions are made, which actors are involved, and which economic, ecological, and social consequences occur. The quantitative study consists of a written postal survey of renewable energy plant operators, concerning central aspects of project development. The study found strong regional disparities concerning the entrepreneurial behavior of plant operators of renewable energies, a low importance of socio-institutional and socio-cultural parameters, a great relevance of micro-social environment during site planning of renewable energy plants, and that plant operators are highly influenced by economic and individual desires. It may be concluded that the perspectives operators have on the Energy Transitions must be more systematically included into the discourse regarding the sustainable deployment of renewable energies, as they reveal significant disparities with topics that are emphasized by the public (e.g., landscape aesthetic, citizens’ participation). It was shown that the challenges and problems that arise in the context of regional energy transformation cannot be generalized beyond regional circumstances; rather, they must be regarded as specific regional phenomena that have to be overcome by means of regionally adapted energy concepts.

With the Clean Energy for all Europeans legislative package, the European Union (EU) aimed to put consumers “at the heart” of EU energy policy. The recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) acknowledged the importance of energy communities for the energy transition and introduced new provisions for renewable energy communities (RECs), empowering them to participate in the energy market. This article analyses the progress of transposing and implementing key provisions of the RED II that apply to RECs in nine European countries and focuses on timeliness and completeness of transposition. It comprises both a qualitative and quantitative assessment covering (1) the definition, rights, and market activities of RECs; (2) key elements of enabling frameworks; and (3) consideration of REC specificities in support schemes for renewable energy. The analysis shows considerable variation in transposition performance between the analysed countries. The authors investigate the reasons for this variation and relate them to findings of European implementation and compliance research. Key factors identified include actor-related and capacity-related factors, institutional fit, and characteristics of the RED II itself. Future research in this field needs multi-faceted avenues and should pay particular attention to the influence of national governments and incumbents, not only in the transposition process, but already in upstream policy formulation at the European level.