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Green ammonia is gaining momentum as a globally significant technology for deep decarbonisation. In this thesis, several models are developed across chemical, techno-economic, and energy system modelling disciplines to explore the future role of green ammonia. First, standalone models of production (i.e., power-to-ammonia) and re-electrification (i.e., ammonia-to-power) are developed and compared to competing technologies. Second, these models are integrated into a planning and dispatch energy system model (ESM) of India to 2050. The ESM has several novel additions including the sector coupling of hydrogen and ammonia, multiple years of granular weather data, and learning-curve-based technology cost forecasts. India is chosen as an ideal case study given its globally unmatched demand growth in all three relevant sectors: electricity, green hydrogen, and green ammonia. The projected electricity demands for green hydrogen and ammonia production account for 25% of the total Indian electricity demand in 2050, underscoring the transformational potential that green hydrogen and ammonia sector coupling can have on the Indian energy system. The results of the state-of-the-art ESM highlight synergistic effects of hydrogen and ammonia sector coupling with the power system. The least-cost system employs seasonal green ammonia production paired with up to 40 million tonnes (i.e., 200 TWh) of ammonia storage, as well as some re-electrification via gas turbines. Sector coupling reduces system curtailment, addresses challenges of long-duration storage, and improves system resilience to interannual weather variations. While India is a crucial case study from a global decarbonisation perspective, the methodology and findings are generally applicable, and it is the aim of this work to motivate and accelerate the wider research community into considering the potential impacts of green ammonia sector coupling on electricity grid design. Finally, this work highlights strategic technology development direction for ammonia producers and gas turbine manufacturers, as well as implications for policymakers.

Ireland imports 88% of its energy requirements. Oil makes up 59% of total final energy consumption (TFC). Import dependency, low fuel diversity and volatile prices leave Ireland vulnerable in terms of energy security. The Supply/Demand Index, developed by the energy research centre of the Netherlands (ECN), has been used previously as a metric to assess Irish energy security. The method assesses both supply and demand side quantitative factors by sector, assigns expert opinion weights to these factors to allocate risk, and give a relative picture of energy security when compared to EU benchmarks. The thesis further develops this index in order to address a number of limitations and to develop further insights into energy security. Firstly, the update develops a time series dataset taking into account the most recent Irish Energy balance data from the International Energy Agency (IEA) and EUROSTAT, while economic-energy indicators are supplemented from the ODYSSEE database. Secondly, given Irelands reliance on the UK for the primary energy supply for refined oil products and natural gas, an appropriate restructuring of Irish primary energy supply risk is developed to account for the risk in UK chain of primary energy supply. This is deemed necessary given the shift in UK energy balance from net exporter to net importer of energy. Moving from energy index analysis to energy systems analysis, this thesis develops the first energy security scenarios for Ireland to 2050 using long term macroeconomic forecasts to 2050, with oil production and price scenarios from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), soft-linked to the Irish-TIMES energy systems model. The analysis focuses on developing a least cost optimum energy system for Ireland under scenarios of constrained oil supply from 2012 (0.8% annual import growth, and –2% annual import decline) and subsequent sustained long term price shocks to oil and gas imports. The results point to gas becoming the dominant fuel source for Ireland, at 54% total final energy consumption in 2020, supplanting oil from reference projections of 57% to 10.8% TFC. In 2012, the cost of net oil imports stood at €3.6 billion (2.26% GDP). The modelled high oil and gas price scenarios show an additional annual cost in comparison to a reference of between €2.9bn and €7.5bn IX by 2020 (1.9% - 4.9% of GDP) to choose to develop a least cost energy system. Investment and ramifications for Irish energy security are discussed. In a climate constrained future, hybrid energy-economy model coupling gives additional insight into interregional competition, trade, industrial delocalisation and overall macroeconomic consequences of decarbonising the energy system. Decarbonising the energy system is critical in mitigating climate change. This thesis summarises modelling methodologies developed in the International Energy Agency Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme (IEA-ETSAP) community to assess economic impacts of decarbonising energy systems at global and national levels. The range of economic impacts is regionally dependent upon the stage of economic development, the level of industrialisation, energy intensity of exports, and competition effects due to rates of relative decarbonisation. Decarbonisation targets of developed nations are estimated to result in a manageable GDP loss in the region of 2% by 2050. Energy intensive export driven developing countries, such as China and India, and fossil fuel exporting nations can expect significantly higher GDP loss of up to 5% GDP by 2050. The approaches outlined within have guided the first evidence based decarbonisation legislation and continue to provide additional insights as increased sectoral disaggregation in hybrid modelling approaches is achieved. This thesis develops a general equilibrium feedback in technology rich integrated energy systems modes to equitable burden sharing rules for climate change mitigation at an Irish and Global scale. The IEA-ETSAP hybrid global Integrated Assessment Model TIAM-MACRO is used to investigate the efficient bottom-up energy system required to meet a 2°C limit target with 66% probability while optimising for consumer welfare. Least cost efficient 2°C scenario (2DS) emissions are compared alongside burden sharing rules, including contract and convergence equalisation of emissions per capita, equalisation of regional GDP loss, compensation for energy cost increases in Least Developed Countries (LDCs), full compensation for GDP loss in LDCs and two interpretations of the “Brazil Proposal” of historical cumulative responsibility for temperature forcing. X The results in this thesis for equal future emissions per capita challenge statements that this approach will aid emerging economies, mainly China and India. This thesis shows that China, India and developing Asia suffer increased economic losses using equal per capita burden sharing rules in comparison to the efficient least cost scenario. China fares best when the burden sharing rules focus on equalisation for economic losses, while India, Other Developing Asia, and Africa have greater economic benefits when rules focus on equitable cumulative emissions per capita. Finally this approach can quantify the levels of capital transfer the Green Climate Fund should manage going forward, indicates which regions should pay, which regions should receive, and quantify the amount of capital transfers.

The presented Report forms Deliverable D6.2 resulted from the realization of Workpackage WP.6.3 titled “Overview of market drivers, fiscal measures and subsidies” in frame of the EU-Project “Geothermal communities – demonstrating the cascaded use of geothermal energy for district heating with small scale RES integration and retrofitting measures” (GEOCOM). The following seven countries were covered by WP6.3 works and this Deliverable D6.2: o Macedonia, o Hungary, o Italy, o Poland, o Romania, o Serbia, o Slovakia. The work was done with the contribution of all GEOCOM Project Partner teams and appointed experts, coordinated, interpreted and summarized by the Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of PAS team, WP6 leader. FP7

In face of increased efforts to mitigate climate change, biofuels may be included in reduction plans forgreenhouse gas emissions. Feedstock for first generation biofuels and food crops both use arable land andmay compete for it. Also, fuel is an input for the production and transport of food. The purpose of thispaper is to quantify with empirical data how these two aspects affect market outcomes and to introduce acounterfactual setting where the latter aspect dominates the former. The setting allows an expansion ofbiofuel production to increase food production by lowering costs of production and transport. Namely,lower costs increase market access, allowing a higher utilization of idle production capacities for foodcrops. For this quantification, I develop an open market, welfare maximizing, partial equilibrium modelfor three interdependent goods fuel, fuel feedstock, and food (these goods are represented by diesel/biodiesel,palm oil, and cassava/maize respectively). The model is calibrated to Zambia, which exhibits the necessaryunderlying conditions of underutilized agricultural capacity, high transport costs, and low exports offood. Compared to a baseline, model results show the counterfactual switch from fossil diesel to biodieselto reduce the diesel price by51%. This increases food supply (cassava and maize combined) by0.4%and decreases related prices by3%. Overall welfare increases by9.9%. If additionally, a higher worldmarket price of maize renders exports just profitable, overall welfare continues to gain9.9%, domesticfood supply rises by0.3%, and related prices drop by2%, but food supply including exports grows by32%. Furthermore, the introduction of a palm oil based biodiesel sector eliminates import dependency onfossil diesel and palm oil.

In this paper the author analyzes the dependence between energy and industrial competitiveness before and after the 2008 economic crisis in the European Union. The Europe 2020 strategy aims energy major industrial competitiveness and increasing energy efficiency. But the economic crisis of 2008 led to reduced energy consumption and prices have increased considerably, so prices in the European Union in the energy industry are estimated to be twice higher than in the United States and Russia and 20% higher than those in China. According to the 2020 European Strategy for Sustainable Growth proposed increasing share of renewables to 20% increasing 20% energy efficiency and 20% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions greenhouse (or even 30 %, in favorable conditions) compared to 1990. The economic analysis in this paper are based on statistical quantitative method. Indicators used in this analysis are available on major platforms Eurostat data.

Within the scope of sustainable development goals and climate change mitigation, this study focuses on investigating the effects of energy consumption, agriculture, and economic growth on CO 2 emissions in the top ten agricultural countries for the period 1997-2016. By investigating the validity of the agricultural induced environmental Kuznets curve (EKC), the study mainly aims to explore how agricultural activities affect environmental quality. In doing so, this study utilizes the augmented mean group (AMG) estimator that allows for heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence. The results of the AMG estimator suggest that the agricultural induced EKC hypothesis is valid for six out of the ten countries. The empirical results also indicate that agriculture reduces CO2 emissions, while energy consumption accelerates environmental degradation. All these results suggest that agricultural production and economic development can play an essential role in reducing environmental pollution.

This work is a case study of an agro-industrial company from Arad County, Romania. This company applies an integrated farming and processing approached by (near) closed loop cycle of bio-resources: (1) agricultural farming, (2) animal breeding (cattle and pigs), (3) food production (meat and milk products), (4) marketing finished agro (bio) products. The single link missing to close this cycle is conversion of organic wastes into energy and fertilizer. We propose application of anaerobic digestion of organic wastes generated in agricultural and industrial processes of this company to produce energy and organic fertilizer which will be applied on the agricultural fields to produce new feedstock for the agro-industrial complex. The methodology applied highlights the influence of the added co-substrates on the digestion process, and the possibilities of the energy recovery in suitable units, to mitigate the highest value of energy efficiency. In comparison to alternative technologies for energy production, the proposed CHP energy recovery is consuming less primary energy for the same amount of energy as underline the PES indicators of 20.30 % for scenario 1, and 11.05 % for scenario 2. Proceedings of the 25th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, 12-15 June 2017, Stockholm, Sweden, pp. 938-942

The article aims at improving the understanding of the contribution of food plans in the transition towards more sustainable food systems. The research presents the results of a survey of all the food plans developed until today in Italy. The methodology is based on a documentary analysis according to which an analytical framework was built to investigate geographies, visions, and objectives of the plans; the governance mechanisms, policies, and actions to achieve these objectives; the actors involved in the decision-making process; and the relations with statutory planning policies. A specific focus is oriented to investigate if and how the plans interpret food as a resource able to produce positive impacts on the economic and environmental sustainability of the food system. Although food plans have triggered a process of cultural and institutional enhancement allowing to coordinate and integrate different policies, the research has shown that most of them have not found effective applications and created good performance results.

PhD (Business Administration), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2019 Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are increasingly becoming the productive drivers of economic growth and development in South Africa. This is so because SME sector is the engine of employment creation and the key contributor to the GDP of the country. Despite their contribution to the development of the economy, the rate of failure and discontinuity of SMEs in South Africa is still one of the highest in the world. A lot of business scholars have addressed the issue plaguing the sector by identifying the causes of SME failure but have not provided a solution on what needs to be done for these business ventures to become sustainable. The purpose of this study therefore was to develop a framework for enhancing the sustainability of SMEs in municipalities of the North West province of South Africa. A number of objectives were set to accomplish the purpose of the study that built up to the development of the proposed framework to enhance the sustainability of SMEs in this region. In order to attain the objectives of this study, the study used five principal theories that address the sustainability of SMEs: the financial gap theory, the resource dependence theory, the theory of mergers and acquisitions, investment theory and trickle-down theory. The pragmatist research paradigm underpinned supported the adoption of a sequential explanatory mixed method approach for collecting and analysing quantitative data in a first phase, while the qualitative phase was built on the outcomes of the preliminary quantitative results. The target population of this study was drawn from the current number of formal (duly registered) SMEs in the North-West province as indicated by the Central Supply Database of the Provincial Department of Finance. This population was chosen from the four district municipalities of the North-West province of South Africa and a non-probability sampling method was used to select a sample size of 400 small business owners and managers for the quantitative phase and 20 for the qualitative phase. The Statistical Package for Social Science was used to analyse quantitative data and Atlas-Ti software was used to analyse qualitative data. The findings of the study indicate that the major causes of SME failure and discontinuity in the North West province is due to various factors such as lack of strategic business planning, lack of sufficient finance, poor management, lack of innovation, lack of business research and low level of human capital education and training. Therefore, it is imperative for SME owners and managers to formulate and pursue a strategic business plan for their businesses, seek for measures to foster an improved flow of finances and implement strategic management in their businesses. More so, it is necessary for SME owners and managers to be innovative in business, conduct business research and upgrade the level of education and training of their human capital to ensure successful and sustainable business enterprises. More importantly, because of their contribution to economic growth of the country, the government should endeavour to support and encourage this sector to develop by offering financial and technical assistance to small business enterprises through relevant departments and agencies. Doctoral

The EU has set clear targets regarding energy conservation of buildings and heavily supports activities towards achieving these targets on a European scale. The Green Deal, renovation wave, Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) and Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) are some examples of EU's actions. For more than a decade, Energy Performance Certificates provide detailed data about the current energy needs of a building/building unit as well as information about the building construction and systems. A Building Renovation Passport (BRP) has, on a European level lately, been conceived as a tool that can stimulate cost-effective renovation in the form of a long-term basis, step-by-step deep renovation roadmap following defined quality criteria, and outline energy renovation measures that will improve the energy performance of the building. A Digital Building Logbook (DBL) is another tool that can serve as an archive where all building information can be stored and continuously updated. In this way, a full record of the building history will be electronically available with data regarding construction plans and permits, maintenance and system replacement activities, energy and heat consumption and production, etc. Building Renovation Passports and the Digital Building Logbook are tools that can help in achieving energy efficiency in existing buildings and contribute to reaching the EU renovation wave goals. The objective of this report is to investigate how the current EPC schemes best make the link towards the BRP and the DBL to further incentivise and stimulate cost-effective deep energy renovations of buildings across Europe. Three surveys were carried out to collect relevant information about the current status of the EPC data records and to identify stakeholders' potential needs, perceptions, thoughts and expectations, regarding a future connection between the EPC and the BRP or DBL. These surveys were prepared in two forms: using an excel file format circulated via email, and through an online questionnaire. Their completion was carried out by 16 countries. Regarding the EPCs, the state or regional energy agencies are the owner of the EPC data records and make full use of them. Their current main usage is for statistical reasons in the majority of the countries and their access is publicly available in half of the responding countries. Many common data is stored in the EPC database which can be linked with other tools (half of the EPC databases are already linked with another source). Regarding the BRP, a review of existing European schemes showed that successful BRPs have combined the renovation advice with financial support, legal requirements and/or communication campaigns. An important factor of the BRP is that it should be issued by a qualified expert and should provide customised measures for the specific building together with the investment costs per renovation measure(s). The DBL analysis showed that it should provide access to building information and contribute to better decision-making for future interventions as well as operation, use and maintenance records. The building owner/user is proposed to have full access to the logbook and provide/input about energy bills and building plans/construction materials info. An important aspect is that every time the building undergoes intervention works, the DBL should be updated accordingly. The most important barrier is the lack of motivation to update the DBL contents followed by the absence of synergies and consistency with other tools. Another interesting finding is that both BRP and DBL should be fed automatically by EPC data without any user interference. There is a clear possible interconnection between EPC data and BRP and DBL future contents. In addition, BRP can be an instrument to increase the renovation rates and DBLs are necessary for the management of buildings' information. The linkage of EPC data and BRP and DBL can be strengthened by introducing BRP and DBL as voluntary schemes under national incentives and should be fully implemented once they have demonstrated acceptance by the stakeholders.