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Climate change affects the timing of phenological events, such as the start, end, and length of the growing season of vegetation. A better understanding of how the phenology responded to climatic determinants is important in order to better anticipate future climate-ecosystem interactions. We examined the changes of three phenological events for the Mongolian Plateau and their climatic determinants. To do so, we derived three phenological metrics from remotely sensed vegetation indices and associated these with climate data for the period of 1982 to 2011. The results suggested that the start of the growing season advanced by 0.10 days yr-1, the end was delayed by 0.11 days yr-1, and the length of the growing season expanded by 6.3 days during the period from 1982 to 2011. The delayed end and extended length of the growing season were observed consistently in grassland, forest, and shrubland, while the earlier start was only observed in grassland. Partial correlation analysis between the phenological events and the climate variables revealed that higher temperature was associated with an earlier start of the growing season, and both temperature and precipitation contributed to the later ending. Overall, our findings suggest that climate change will substantially alter the vegetation phenology in the grasslands of the Mongolian Plateau, and likely also in biomes with similar environmental conditions, such as other semi-arid steppe regions.

Bien que l'on sache beaucoup de choses sur les facteurs qui contrôlent chaque composante du cycle terrestre de l'azote (N), il est moins clair comment ces facteurs affectent la disponibilité totale de l'azote, la somme des formes organiques et inorganiques potentiellement disponibles pour les micro-organismes et les plantes. Cela est particulièrement vrai pour les écosystèmes pauvres en N tels que les terres arides, qui sont très sensibles au changement climatique et aux processus de désertification pouvant entraîner la perte de nutriments du sol tels que N. Nous avons évalué la corrélation entre différents facteurs climatiques, abiotiques, végétaux et liés aux nutriments et la disponibilité de N dans les prairies semi-arides de Stipa tenacissima le long d'un large gradient d'aridité allant de l'Espagne à la Tunisie. L'aridité avait la relation la plus forte avec la disponibilité de l'azote, suggérant l'importance des contrôles abiotiques sur le cycle de l'azote dans les terres arides. L'aridité semble moduler les effets du pH, de la couverture végétale et du C organique (CO) sur la disponibilité de l'azote. Nos résultats suggèrent que les taux de transformation de l'azote, qui sont largement influencés par les variations de l'humidité du sol, ne sont pas les moteurs directs de la disponibilité de l'azote dans les prairies étudiées. Au contraire, la forte relation entre l'aridité et la disponibilité de l'azote pourrait être motivée par des effets indirects qui opèrent sur de longues échelles de temps (des décennies à des millénaires), y compris à la fois biotiques (par exemple, la couverture végétale) et abiotiques (par exemple, le CO et le pH du sol). Si ces facteurs sont en fait plus importants que les effets à court terme des précipitations sur les taux de transformation de l'azote, alors nous pourrions nous attendre à observer une diminution décalée de la disponibilité de l'azote en réponse à l'augmentation de l'aridité. Néanmoins, nos résultats suggèrent que l'augmentation de l'aridité prévue avec le changement climatique en cours réduira la disponibilité de l'azote dans le bassin méditerranéen, affectant l'absorption des nutriments végétaux et la production primaire nette dans les prairies semi-arides de cette région. Si bien se sabe mucho sobre los factores que controlan cada componente del ciclo del nitrógeno (N) terrestre, está menos claro cómo estos factores afectan la disponibilidad total de N, la suma de formas orgánicas e inorgánicas potencialmente disponibles para microorganismos y plantas. Esto es particularmente cierto para los ecosistemas pobres en N, como las tierras secas, que son altamente sensibles al cambio climático y los procesos de desertificación que pueden conducir a la pérdida de nutrientes del suelo, como N. Evaluamos cómo los diferentes factores climáticos, abióticos, vegetales y relacionados con los nutrientes se correlacionan con la disponibilidad de N en los pastizales semiáridos de Stipa tenacissima a lo largo de un amplio gradiente de aridez desde España hasta Túnez. La aridez tuvo la relación más fuerte con la disponibilidad de N, lo que sugiere la importancia de los controles abióticos en el ciclo de N en las tierras secas. La aridez pareció modular los efectos del pH, la cobertura vegetal y el C orgánico (OC) sobre la disponibilidad de N. Nuestros resultados sugieren que las tasas de transformación de N, que son impulsadas en gran medida por las variaciones en la humedad del suelo, no son los impulsores directos de la disponibilidad de N en los pastizales estudiados. Más bien, la fuerte relación entre la aridez y la disponibilidad de N podría ser impulsada por efectos indirectos que operan en escalas de tiempo largas (décadas a milenios), incluyendo tanto bióticos (por ejemplo, cobertura vegetal) como abióticos (por ejemplo, OC y pH del suelo). Si estos factores son de hecho más importantes que los efectos a corto plazo de la precipitación en las tasas de transformación de N, entonces podríamos esperar observar una disminución retardada en la disponibilidad de N en respuesta al aumento de la aridez. Sin embargo, nuestros resultados sugieren que el aumento de la aridez predicho con el cambio climático en curso reducirá la disponibilidad de N en la cuenca mediterránea, lo que afectará la absorción de nutrientes de las plantas y la producción primaria neta en los pastizales semiáridos en toda esta región. While much is known about the factors that control each component of the terrestrial nitrogen (N) cycle, it is less clear how these factors affect total N availability, the sum of organic and inorganic forms potentially available to microorganisms and plants. This is particularly true for N-poor ecosystems such as drylands, which are highly sensitive to climate change and desertification processes that can lead to the loss of soil nutrients such as N. We evaluated how different climatic, abiotic, plant and nutrient related factors correlate with N availability in semiarid Stipa tenacissima grasslands along a broad aridity gradient from Spain to Tunisia. Aridity had the strongest relationship with N availability, suggesting the importance of abiotic controls on the N cycle in drylands. Aridity appeared to modulate the effects of pH, plant cover and organic C (OC) on N availability. Our results suggest that N transformation rates, which are largely driven by variations in soil moisture, are not the direct drivers of N availability in the studied grasslands. Rather, the strong relationship between aridity and N availability could be driven by indirect effects that operate over long time scales (decades to millennia), including both biotic (e.g. plant cover) and abiotic (e.g. soil OC and pH). If these factors are in fact more important than short-term effects of precipitation on N transformation rates, then we might expect to observe a lagged decrease in N availability in response to increasing aridity. Nevertheless, our results suggest that the increase in aridity predicted with ongoing climate change will reduce N availability in the Mediterranean basin, impacting plant nutrient uptake and net primary production in semiarid grasslands throughout this region. في حين أن الكثير معروف عن العوامل التي تتحكم في كل مكون من مكونات دورة النيتروجين الأرضية (N)، إلا أنه من غير الواضح كيف تؤثر هذه العوامل على إجمالي توافر N، وهو مجموع الأشكال العضوية وغير العضوية التي يحتمل أن تكون متاحة للكائنات الحية الدقيقة والنباتات. وينطبق هذا بشكل خاص على النظم الإيكولوجية التي تعاني من فقر النيتروجين مثل الأراضي الجافة، وهي حساسة للغاية لتغير المناخ وعمليات التصحر التي يمكن أن تؤدي إلى فقدان مغذيات التربة مثل النيتروجين. قمنا بتقييم كيفية ارتباط العوامل المناخية واللاأحيائية والنباتية والمغذيات المختلفة بتوافر النيتروجين في المراعي شبه القاحلة على طول تدرج جفاف واسع من إسبانيا إلى تونس. كان للجفاف أقوى علاقة بتوافر النيتروجين، مما يشير إلى أهمية الضوابط اللاأحيائية في دورة النيتروجين في الأراضي الجافة. يبدو أن الجفاف يعدل تأثيرات الأس الهيدروجيني والغطاء النباتي و C العضوي (OC) على توافر N. تشير نتائجنا إلى أن معدلات تحول N، التي تحركها إلى حد كبير الاختلافات في رطوبة التربة، ليست هي الدوافع المباشرة لتوافر N في الأراضي العشبية المدروسة. بدلاً من ذلك، يمكن أن تكون العلاقة القوية بين الجفاف وتوافر N مدفوعة بالتأثيرات غير المباشرة التي تعمل على نطاقات زمنية طويلة (من عقود إلى آلاف السنين)، بما في ذلك كل من الحيوية (مثل الغطاء النباتي) واللاأحيائية (مثل OC التربة ودرجة الحموضة). إذا كانت هذه العوامل في الواقع أكثر أهمية من الآثار قصيرة الأجل لهطول الأمطار على معدلات تحول N، فقد نتوقع ملاحظة انخفاض متأخر في توافر N استجابة لزيادة الجفاف. ومع ذلك، تشير نتائجنا إلى أن الزيادة في القحولة المتوقعة مع تغير المناخ المستمر ستقلل من توافر N في حوض البحر الأبيض المتوسط، مما يؤثر على امتصاص المغذيات النباتية وصافي الإنتاج الأولي في المراعي شبه القاحلة في جميع أنحاء هذه المنطقة.

The incorporation of cover crops into the maize (Zea mays L.)-soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotation in the U.S. upper Midwest may improve sustainability. Long, cold winters in the region make identifying successful cover crop species and management practices a challenge. Two experiments were conducted in Minnesota, USA from fall 2016 through spring 2019 to examine the effect of cover crops interseeded at four- to six-leaf collar (early-interseeded) and dent to physiological maturity (late-interseeded) on biomass and grain yield of maize. Annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum L.) and cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) were evaluated as monocultures and in mixtures with crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) and forage radish (Raphanus sativus L.). Differences in canopy cover and biomass of late-interseeded cover crops were observed at the southernmost location in 2018. Additional accumulated growing-degree days in fall 2018 did not translate into increased cover crop canopy coverage of late-interseeded cover crops. Differences in cover crop canopy cover and biomass of early-interseeded cover crops were observed by fall frost at all locations in 2017 and at the northernmost location in 2018. Cover crop canopy cover and biomass at termination before planting maize, soil moisture at maize planting as well as maize aboveground biomass and yield were not affected by spring cereal rye regrowth of cover crops late-interseeded the previous year. Similarly, early-interseeded cover crops did not affect maize aboveground biomass or yield. We attribute these results to limited cover crop growth. This highlights the potential of a variety of cover crop strategies interseeded into maize in the U.S. upper Midwest; however, efforts to fine-tuning cover crop management and weather conditions are needed to benefit from such practice.

The production of ethanol from pretreated plant biomass during fermentation is a strategy to mitigate climate change by substituting fossil fuels. However, biomass conversion is mainly limited by the recalcitrant nature of the plant cell wall. To overcome recalcitrance, the optimization of the plant cell wall for subsequent processing is a promising approach. Based on their phylogenetic proximity to existing and emerging energy crops, model plants have been proposed to study bioenergy-related cell wall biochemistry. One example is Brachypodium distachyon, which has been considered as a general model plant for cell wall analysis in grasses. To test whether relative phylogenetic proximity would be sufficient to qualify as a model plant not only for cell wall composition but also for the complete process leading to bioethanol production, we compared the processing of leaf and stem biomass from the C3 grasses B. distachyon and Triticum aestivum (wheat) with the C4 grasses Zea mays (maize) and Miscanthus x giganteus, a perennial energy crop. Lambda scanning with a confocal laser-scanning microscope allowed a rapid qualitative analysis of biomass saccharification. A maximum of 108-117 mg ethanol·g(-1) dry biomass was yielded from thermo-chemically and enzymatically pretreated stem biomass of the tested plant species. Principal component analysis revealed that a relatively strong correlation between similarities in lignocellulosic ethanol production and phylogenetic relation was only given for stem and leaf biomass of the two tested C4 grasses. Our results suggest that suitability of B. distachyon as a model plant for biomass conversion of energy crops has to be specifically tested based on applied processing parameters and biomass tissue type.

Sudangrass, Sorghum sudanense (Piper) Stapf, is a vigorous forage crop that has also been used for biogas, paper, and electricity production. Due to the large biomass yields achieved by sudangrass and the large area of potential growth in Argentina seven sudangrass accessions from a collection of S. sudanense were analyzed to evaluate their potential as feedstocks for lignocellulosic bioethanol production, and to assess whether there is an association between the response to biotic and abiotic stresses and the composition of the biomass. The biomass composition was analyzed for major cell wall polymers, monosaccharides, and elemental composition. On average, 68% of stem lignocellulosic biomass was comprised of matrix polysaccharides and crystalline cellulose, representing a potential source of sugars for bioethanol production. Xylose was the predominant matrix polysaccharide monosaccharide comprising, on average, 45% of the total sugars, followed by arabinose, glucose, galactose, galacturonic acid, mannose, glucuronic acid, and fucose. Rhamnose was not detected in any of the biomasses analyzed. Silica was the most abundant element in sudangrass stem, followed by chloride, calcium, phosphorus and sulfur. We performed saccharification analyses after pretreatments. Alkaline pretreatment was more effective than water pretreatment. Sodium hydroxide pretreatment exposed different levels of recalcitrance among sudangrass accessions, whereas the water pretreatment did not. Phenological traits were also evaluated, showing significant variability among accessions. The comparison of major cell wall polymers and monosaccharide composition between tolerant and susceptible accessions to abiotic and biotic stresses suggests an association between the composition of the biomass and the response to stress.

Pathogens are common and diverse in natural communities and have been implicated in the success of host invasions. Yet few studies have experimentally measured how pathogens impact native versus exotic hosts, particularly when individual hosts are simultaneously coinfected by diverse pathogens. To estimate effects of interactions among multiple pathogens within host individuals on both transmission of pathogens and fitness consequences for hosts, we conducted a greenhouse experiment using California grassland species: the native perennial grass Nassella (Stipa) pulchra, the exotic annual grass Bromus hordeaceus, and three virus species, Barley yellow dwarf virus-PAV, Barley yellow dwarf virus-MAV, and Cereal yellow dwarf virus-RPV. In terms of virus transmission, the native host was less susceptible than the exotic host to MAV. Coinfection of PAV and MAV did not occur in any of the 157 co-inoculated native host plants. In the exotic host, PAV infection most strongly reduced root and shoot biomass, and coinfections that included PAV severely reduced biomass. Infection with single or multiple viruses did not affect biomass in the native host. However, in this species the most potentially pathogenic coinfections (PAV + MAV and PAV + MAV + RPV) did not occur. Together, these results suggest that interactions among multiple pathogens can have important consequences for host health, which may not be predictable from interactions between hosts and individual pathogens. This work addresses a key empirical gap in understanding the impact of multiple generalist pathogens on competing host species, with potential implications for population and community dynamics of native and exotic species. It also demonstrates how pathogens with relatively mild impacts independently can more substantially reduce host performance in coinfection.