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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Article . 2012 . Peer-reviewed
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The water footprint of humanity

Authors: Hoekstra, Arjen Y.; Mekonnen, Mesfin;

The water footprint of humanity

Abstract

This study quantifies and maps the water footprint (WF) of humanity at a high spatial resolution. It reports on consumptive use of rainwater (green WF) and ground and surface water (blue WF) and volumes of water polluted (gray WF). Water footprints are estimated per nation from both a production and consumption perspective. International virtual water flows are estimated based on trade in agricultural and industrial commodities. The global annual average WF in the period 1996–2005 was 9,087 Gm 3 /y (74% green, 11% blue, 15% gray). Agricultural production contributes 92%. About one-fifth of the global WF relates to production for export. The total volume of international virtual water flows related to trade in agricultural and industrial products was 2,320 Gm 3 /y (68% green, 13% blue, 19% gray). The WF of the global average consumer was 1,385 m 3 /y. The average consumer in the United States has a WF of 2,842 m 3 /y, whereas the average citizens in China and India have WFs of 1,071 and 1,089 m 3 /y, respectively. Consumption of cereal products gives the largest contribution to the WF of the average consumer (27%), followed by meat (22%) and milk products (7%). The volume and pattern of consumption and the WF per ton of product of the products consumed are the main factors determining the WF of a consumer. The study illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution by showing that several countries heavily rely on foreign water resources and that many countries have significant impacts on water consumption and pollution elsewhere.

Countries
Netherlands, United States
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Keywords

Civil and Environmental Engineering, Conservation of Natural Resources, Agricultural Irrigation, 330, METIS-284810, Rain, globalization ∣ sustainable consumption ∣ virtual water trade ∣ water pollution, Fresh Water, 333, globalization ∣ sustainable consumption ∣ virtual water trade ∣ water pollution, Water Supply, Natural Resources and Conservation, Water Movements, Natural Resource Economics, Humans, Industry, Human Activities, IR-80894, SDG 2 - Zero Hunger, Hydraulic Engineering, Developing Countries, Developed Countries, Water Pollution, Natural Resources Management and Policy, Commerce, Environmental Health and Protection, Agriculture, Water Resource Management, Sustainability, Food, Hydrology, Environmental Sciences, Environmental Monitoring

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citations
This is an alternative to the "Influence" indicator, which also reflects the overall/total impact of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network (diachronically).
BIP!Citations provided by BIP!
popularity
This indicator reflects the "current" impact/attention (the "hype") of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network.
BIP!Popularity provided by BIP!
influence
This indicator reflects the overall/total impact of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network (diachronically).
BIP!Influence provided by BIP!
impulse
This indicator reflects the initial momentum of an article directly after its publication, based on the underlying citation network.
BIP!Impulse provided by BIP!
2K
Top 0.01%
Top 0.1%
Top 0.1%
bronze
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Energy Research