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This deliverable includes the methodology in EnergyPROSPECTS for an in-depth study of energy citizenship. It features the criteria used for selecting the cases for indepth study, the list of cases selected for in-depth study as well as key research foci and empirical research questions.

In 2008 the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and its experiments started operation at the European Centre of Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva with the main aim of finding or excluding the Higgs boson. Only four years later, on the 4th of July 2012, the discovery of a Higgs-like particle was proven and first published by the two main experiments ATLAS and CMS. Even though proton–proton collisions are the main operation mode of the LHC, it also acts as an heavy-ion collider. Here, the term “heavy-ion collisions” refers to the collision between fully stripped nuclei. While the major hardware system of the LHC is compatible with heavy-ion operation, the beam dynamics and performance limits of ion beams are quite different from those of protons. Because of the higher mass and charge of the ions, beam dynamic effects like intra-beam scattering and radiation damping are stronger. Also the electromagnetic cross-sections in the collisions are larger, leading to significantly faster intensity decay and thus shorter luminosity lifetimes. As the production cross-sections for various physics processes under study of the experiments are still small at energies reachable with the LHC and because the heavy-ion run time is limited to a few days per year, it is essential to obtain the highest possible collision rate, i.e. maximise the instantaneous luminosity, in order to obtain enough events and therefore low statistical errors. Within this thesis, the past performance of the LHC in lead-lead (Pb-Pb) collisions, at a centre-of-mass energy of 2.76 TeV per colliding nucleon pair, is analysed and potential luminosity limitations are identified. Tools are developed to predict future performance and techniques are presented to further increase the luminosity. Finally, a perspective on the future of high energy heavy-ion colliders is given.

Greta Thunberg has called on politicians to “listen to the science” and take climate change seriously. But climate communication strategies can be more effective when “listening to the science” is complemented with “listening to society”.

Renewed COVID-19 outbreaks and uneven vaccination progress are prolonging the fight against the disease in developing Asia. This is contributing to a divergence in growth paths in the region that is partly being determined by the progress on tackling COVID-19. Asian Development Outlook 2021 Update raises regional growth forecasts for East Asia and Central Asia, and revises them down for South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. The main risks to the region’s economic prospects still center on the pandemic, particularly the emergence of new variants, lagging vaccine rollouts, and waning vaccine effectiveness. As economies recover from the pandemic, the threats of climate change will take center stage again. Sustainable food production and agricultural systems that are resilient to climate change will be crucial for developing Asia. To transform agriculture in the region, its economies must tackle challenges from changing consumer demand, changing demographics, and a changing and more fragile environment.

This publication is an initiative of the Government of Papua New Guinea that provides step-by-step guidance on how to rehabilitate mangroves. It aims to help address the impacts of climate change, particularly the coastal flooding prevalent in Papua New Guinea. It is a resource for the planting of mangroves for diverse purposes, including carbon absorption, nature conservation, support for fisheries, and ecotourism.

Der Klimawandel ist eine globale Herausforderung, wobei die geschätzten Kosten für seine Eindämmung zwischen 1,6 und 3,8 Billionen USD pro Jahr liegen. Als Pionier im Bereich des Klimaschutzes verfügt die Europäische Union über das weltweit umfangreichste Emissionshandelssystem (87 % des globalen Wertes von 865 Mrd. USD im Jahr 2022). Die kumulative Dissertation ist in drei Artikel unterteilt und beschäftigt sich mit der Rolle von forstwirtschaftlichen Kohlenstoffgutschriften sowohl auf den Verpflichtungsmärkten als auch auf den freiwilligen Kohlenstoffmärkten. Dabei werden Potenziale für forstwirtschaftliche Investitionen in diesen beiden Märkten untersucht. Im ersten Artikel wird ein Überblick über die Klimastrategie der Europäischen Union gegeben, wobei der Schwerpunkt auf der Entwicklung des EU-Emissionshandelssystems (EU ETS) und der Rolle von Waldkohlenstoffzertifikaten für Kompensationszwecke sowohl in der Europäischen Union als auch international liegt. Wir argumentieren, dass die Europäische Union weiterhin ein beträchtliches Potenzial der Wälder - insbesondere der tropischen Wälder - als natürliche Kohlenstoffsenken ungenutzt lässt. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigen wir auf, dass die Regulierungsbehörden aus den Erfahrungen und Verbesserungen der Vergangenheit, den Sustainable Carbon Cylces der Europäischen Union und der Fertigstellung und Entwicklung des Regelwerks für Artikel 6 des Pariser Abkommens lernen können. Wir unterbreiten einen Vorschlag zur Änderung der EU-ETS-Verordnung, indem wir die kürzlich im Trilog vereinbarte Gesetzgebung der Europäischen Kommission zur Erhöhung des linearen Reduktionsfaktors von 2,2 % auf 4,2 % auf die Anrechenbarkeit von Waldkohlenstoffgutschriften übertragen, was zu einem zusätzlichen Finanzierungspotenzial für Forstprojekte zur Erhöhung der notwendigen Kohlenstoffsenken führt. Gleichzeitig wird durch die Möglichkeit, in begrenztem Umfang in Neutralisierungsprojekte zu investieren, das Risiko gemindert, dass regulierte Unternehmen bei der Erreichung der Emissionsreduktionsziele überfordert werden. Das Überdenken des Status quo erfordert nicht nur eine Stärkung der Robustheit von Kohlenstoffprojekten, sondern kann auch den Widerstand von politischen Entscheidungsträgern und NGOs überwinden. Emissionsgutschriften aus Wäldern sind in den meisten Emissionshandelssystemen von Bedeutung, da sie ein kosteneffizientes Mittel zum Ausgleich von schwer zu kompensierenden Emissionen darstellen. Bislang war dies im Emissionshandelssystem der Europäischen Union (EU ETS) nicht der Fall. Da das Regelwerk des Pariser Abkommens nun fertiggestellt ist, könnte sich jedoch die Gelegenheit bieten, diesen Flexibilitätsmechanismus in der europäischen Klimapolitik wiederzubeleben. Auf der Grundlage von 24 Experteninterviews untersuchten wir im zweiten Artikel das forstwirtschaftliche Potenzial innerhalb des EU-Emissionshandelssystems über kurz-, mittel- und langfristige Zeiträume. Wir kamen zu dem Ergebnis, dass das Erfüllungssystem bis 2030 blockiert bleiben wird, dass aber langfristig ein Übergang zur Einbeziehung von forstbasierten Entnahmen und Reduktionen wahrscheinlicher ist. Obwohl forstwirtschaftliche Projekte in der EU auf große Zurückhaltung stoßen, herrscht Einigkeit darüber, wie wichtig sowohl technologische Lösungen als auch solche Initiativen für den Klimaschutz sind. Um das Potenzial der Forstwirtschaft in Zukunft voll auszuschöpfen, müssen andere Methoden und Instrumente (z. B. Haftungsregelungen), strengere Rechtsvorschriften für sozioökonomische Faktoren (z. B. Landnutzungsrechte), die Überwindung von Umsetzungshürden (z. B. keine Kompromisse bei der Abschreckung durch Abschwächung) und eine offene politische Haltung eingeführt werden. Diese Studie bietet eine umfassende Perspektive auf die Hindernisse und Potenziale von Forstprojekten im Rahmen des Compliance-Systems der EU, die bei der Wiederaufnahme der Diskussion über die künftige Förderfähigkeit unbedingt berücksichtigt werden muss. Die Ergebnisse der Studie legen nahe, die Hindernisse für die Bereitstellung von Emissionsgutschriften in der nächsten Phase des EU-Emissionshandelssystems ab 2030 unverzüglich zu beseitigen. Der freiwillige Kohlenstoffmarkt (Voluntary Carbon Market, VCM) hat in den letzten Jahren ein beispielloses Wachstum erlebt, das durch die Verpflichtungen der Unternehmen begünstigt wurde. Die künftige Entwicklung hängt jedoch von der Strategie des Pariser Abkommens ab, insbesondere von Artikel 6. Daher werden im dritten Artikel die verschiedenen vorgeschlagenen Mechanismen und ihre Auswirkungen auf den VCM analysiert. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist der Bedarf an entsprechenden Anpassungen (CA) und wie sich diese Anforderung auf den VCM auswirkt. Der "neue" Typ von Kohlenstoffgutschriften, der auf der CoP27 eingeführt wurde, nämlich die "Mitigation Contribution A6.4ERs", wird die Konsolidierung des VCM wahrscheinlich beschleunigen. Auf der Grundlage einer halbsystematischen Überprüfung und von Experteninterviews (N = 20) sprechen die derzeitigen kurzfristigen Aussichten (~2030) für ein weiteres Wachstum des VCM, trotz bestehender Unsicherheiten aufgrund der unvollständigen technischen Details des Rahmens. Darüber hinaus halten die meisten Experten den Artikel 6-Rahmen nach intensiven und gründlichen Verhandlungen für erfolgreich. Mittelfristig (~2030-2045) wird es wahrscheinlich zu einem Marktübergang kommen. Dementsprechend wird der VCM seine Nische finden und das gegenwärtig verwendete Ausgleichsinstrument neu bewerten müssen. Diese Neubewertung muss über eine reine Kohlenstoffperspektive hinausgehen und sich auf die Zusatznutzen konzentrieren, um die Legitimität des VCM zu erhalten. Langfristig (~2045) deuten die Ergebnisse auf einen Rückgang des VCM hin, da er möglicherweise mit Compliance-Märkten kombiniert wird. Die Infrastruktur und die Robustheit der Artikel-6-Regelwerke werden jedoch dazu beitragen, das volle Wachstumspotenzial des VCM zu gewährleisten. Climate change is a global challenge, with estimated mitigation costs ranging from USD1.6 to USD3.8 trillion per year. As a pioneer in climate action, the European Union has the most extensive emissions trading system worldwide (87% of the global value of USD865 billion in 2022). The cumulative PhD thesis is divided into three articles dealing with the role of forest carbon credits in both compliance and voluntary carbon markets as well as investigating further potentials for forest investments in both of these markets. In the first article, we review the European Union's climate strategy, emphasizing the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) development, and the role of forest carbon credits for offsetting purposes, both in the European Union but also internationally. We argue that the European Union continues to leave a significant potential of forests - in particular tropical forests - as natural carbon sinks unattended. In contrast, we reveal that the regulators can learn from the experiences and improvements made in the past, the European Union’s Sustainable Carbon Cylces and the finalization and development of the rulebook for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. We present a proposal on changes to the EU ETS regulation by converting the European Commission's legislation, recently agreed in the trilogue, to increase the linear reduction factor from 2.2% to 4.2% to the eligibility of forest carbon credits, resulting in additional funding potential for forestry projects to increase necessary carbon sinks. Simultaneously, allowing flexibility of investing to a limited extent in neutralization projects mitigates the risk of overstressing regulated companies to reach the emission reduction targets. The re-thinking of the status quo will not only require strengthening the robustness of carbon projects, but may also overcome the resistance of policy makers and NGOs. Forest-based carbon credits are crucial in most Emissions Trading Schemes as they offer a cost-efficient means of offsetting hard-to-abate emissions. To date, this has not been the case in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS). However with the Paris Agreement rulebook now finalized, there could be an opportunity to revive this flexibility mechanism in European climate policy. Based on 24 expert interviews, we examined in the second article the forest potential within the EU ETS across short, medium, and long-term time frames. We found that the compliance system will remain blocked until 2030, but there is a greater likelihood of transitioning towards the inclusion of forest-based removals and reductions in the long term. Although forestry projects have faced significant reluctance in the EU, there is unanimous agreement on the importance of both technological solutions and such initiatives for climate protection. To fully leverage the potential of forest activity in the future, it will be necessary to adopt different methods and tools (e.g., liability regimes), stricter legislation on socio-economic factors (e.g., land use rights), overcoming implementation hurdles (e.g., do not compromise deterrence through mitigation), and maintaining an open political stance. This study provides a comprehensive perspective on the barriers and potentials of forestry projects within the compliance system of the EU which is essential to be addressed when re-opening the discussion on future eligibility. The implication of the findings suggest an immediate start to adopt to the barriers for carbon credit readiness in the next phase of the EU ETS beginning of 2030. The voluntary carbon market (VCM) has seen unprecedented growth over the past years, facilitated by corporate commitments. However, future development depends on the Paris Agreement strategy, in particular, Article 6. Therefore, the third article analyzes the various mechanisms suggested and their implications on the VCM. Of particular importance is the need for corresponding adjustments (CA) and how this requirement spills over to the VCM. The “new” type of carbon credits introduced during CoP27, that is, the “mitigation contribution A6.4ERs” will likely accelerate the consolidation of the VCM. Based on a semi-systematic review and expert interviews (N = 20), the current short-term (~2030) prospects support further growth of the VCM despite existing uncertainties caused by the incomplete technical details of the framework. Moreover, after intense and thorough negotiation, most experts deemed the Article 6 framework successful. In the mid-term (~2030-2045), a market transition will likely occur. Accordingly, the VCM will need to find its niche and reassess the current compensation tool used. This reassessment must go beyond a mere carbon perspective and focus on co-benefits to prolong the legitimacy of the VCM. Long-term (~2045) results indicate a decline in the VCM as it potentially combines with compliance markets. However, the infrastructure and robustness of Article 6 rulesets will help to ensure the full growth potential of the VCM.

A fundamental change in societal values and economic structures is required to address increasing pressures on ecosystems and natural resources. Transition research has developed in the last decades to analyze the co-dynamics of technological, institutional, social and economic elements in the provision of key functions such as energy, water and food supply. This doctoral dissertation provides conceptual and methodological contributions to the pro-active governance of sustainability transitions. Three research gaps are identified that are addressed in this dissertation. First, a comprehensive conceptualization of learning in sustainability transitions is currently missing that comprises learning at multiple societal levels (ranging from individuals to policy-actors). Learning concepts are often not explicitly discussed in transition research even though learning is considered as fundamental for innovation processes, niche formation and development as well as breakthrough and diffusion of innovations. Second, methods for the analysis and design of transition governance processes are lacking that specify case-specific intervention points and roles of actors in the implementation of innovations. Third, participatory modeling approaches are only applied to a limited extent in transition research despite a high potential for supporting communication and learning. The conceptualization of multi-level learning developed in this doctoral research conceptualizes learning at different societal levels as specific learning contexts ranging from individual and group contexts to organizational and policy contexts. The conceptual framework further differentiates between learning processes, intensity, objects, outcomes, subjects and factors, allowing for a more detailed analysis of learning within and across learning contexts. Thus, learning contexts can be linked by processes that involve actors from different learning contexts (e.g., community groups and policy-makers), as well as exchanges of physical aspects, institutions ...

The importance of wind energy has progressed rapidly in the last years. Although Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) are most well-spread, there is an increasing interest in Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT), especially in the H-Darrieus concept, as these rotors are omni-directional and affordable. However, the physics of these rotors is more complex; they can only be analyzed using transient CFD simulations. Due to the finite aspect ratio of the rotors, a wingtip vortex is created, which generates losses. Optimizing the wingtip geometry could be advantageous for increasing the efficiency of the rotors: this can only be achieved with three-dimensional turbulent transient simulations. For the optimization of winglets, the whole process (mesh generation, CFD computation, post-processing) has to be automated. This is achieved using the OPtimization Algorithm Library++ (OPAL++), a custom C++ code for the description of blended and canted winglets, coupled with a CD-Adapco StarCCM+ JAVA script for the automatization of the mesh generation and CFD computations. To check the viability of the present concept, two parameters have been varied in the simulations. As shown in what follows, an efficient automatic optimization of wind turbine wingtips can be implemented in this manner.

Increasing agricultural productivity is one of the most important aims of modern biotechnology. One way to enhance the productivity of crop species is to enhance the efficiency of photosynthesis. In C3 plants the oxygenase activity of Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo) limits the photosynthetic efficiency. The green microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has evolved a CO2 concentration mechanism (CCM) by increasing the CO2 concentration in the chloroplast stroma where RuBisCO is located. Four independent transgenic tobacco genotypes (LA, LB, C1 and C3) were generated producing the low CO2-inducible protein A and B (LCIA and LCIB) or the carbonic anhydrases I and III (CAH1 and CAH3) from C. reinhardtii CCM in the envelope, stroma, intermembrane space or thylakoid lumen of tobacco chloroplasts, respectively. All four recombinant proteins were active in planta, which had a substantial impact on carbon and nitrogen metabolism. Increasing the CO2 concentration near RuBisCO resulted in an enhanced rate of photosynthesis (by up to 15%), efficiency of photosystem II (by up to 18%) and chlorophyll content (by up to 19%). Although to differing extents, all four transgenic genotypes grew faster than wild-type plants, produced more shoot biomass (up to 45% more fresh weight or 38% more dry weight in the LA lines) and accumulated more photosynthetic end products, reflecting the higher rate of photosynthetic CO2 fixation. The proteome analysis revealed that the proteins changed in the transgenic genotypes compared to the wild-type plants were primarily associated with the regulation of the Calvin cycle and the amino acid biosynthesis. Metabolic analysis of the transgenic LA, LB and C3 plants revealed an increase in the levels of carbohydrates and also of most amino acids. Furthermore, transgenic LA and LB plants could maintain the enhanced biomass under low nitrogen conditions, where similarly-treated wild-type plants grew more slowly. The data generated in the present study confirmed that even single Chlamydomonas CCM components can be integrated into C3 plants to increase biomass, suggesting that transgenic lines combining multiple components or even a complete CCM could further increase the productivity and yield of C3 crops. RWTH Aachen University, Diss., 2017; Aachen, 1 Online-Ressource (151 Seiten) : Illustrationen, Diagramme(2017). = RWTH Aachen University, Diss., 2017 Published by Aachen