• Energy Research

Abstract The ethanol industry in North America uses starch derived from corn as its primary feedstock. In order to better understand the geographical distribution of advanced ethanol production, potential sources of lignocellulosic biomass for the process are considered. It is shown that the corn-producing regions of North America already support significant amounts of ethanol production, and that few unexploited sources of corn remain for the industry to utilize. Accessing other sources of sugar, including other types of biomass such as lignocellulosic materials, will become necessary for the industry as it expands, quite apart from the need to meet government mandates. The ability of bioconversion and thermochemical conversion to generate biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass is reviewed. The availability of lignocellulosic residues from agricultural and forestry operations is described, and the potential biofuel production associated with these residues is described. A residue-based process could greatly extend the potential of the ethanol industry to become a substantial contributor to the fuel and energy requirements of North America. It is estimated that ethanol production from residues could provide up to 13.7% of Canada’s 2009 transportation fuel demand, and up to 5.2% of the United States’ 2010 fuel demand. Utilizing lignocellulosic biomass will extend the geographic range of the biofuel industry, and increase the stability and security of this sector by reducing the impact of localized disruptions in supply. Development of a residue-based industry will help create the technologies needed to process energy crops as North America moves towards greater transportation fuel independence.

Abstract The ethanol industry in North America uses starch derived from corn as its primary feedstock. In order to better understand the geographical distribution of advanced ethanol production, potential sources of lignocellulosic biomass for the process are considered. It is shown that the corn-producing regions of North America already support significant amounts of ethanol production, and that few unexploited sources of corn remain for the industry to utilize. Accessing other sources of sugar, including other types of biomass such as lignocellulosic materials, will become necessary for the industry as it expands, quite apart from the need to meet government mandates. The ability of bioconversion and thermochemical conversion to generate biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass is reviewed. The availability of lignocellulosic residues from agricultural and forestry operations is described, and the potential biofuel production associated with these residues is described. A residue-based process could greatly extend the potential of the ethanol industry to become a substantial contributor to the fuel and energy requirements of North America. It is estimated that ethanol production from residues could provide up to 13.7% of Canada’s 2009 transportation fuel demand, and up to 5.2% of the United States’ 2010 fuel demand. Utilizing lignocellulosic biomass will extend the geographic range of the biofuel industry, and increase the stability and security of this sector by reducing the impact of localized disruptions in supply. Development of a residue-based industry will help create the technologies needed to process energy crops as North America moves towards greater transportation fuel independence.

Abstract Biodiesel from microalgae is regarded as a green and renewable energy source; it is produced from non-food feedstock material, has a high quantity of free fatty acids per unit weight of dry matter, may be cultivated with relatively low land use requirements, and may be adapted to regions with growing economies. Nevertheless, microalgal-based biodiesel production systems are still far from being exploitable on a commercial level due to high energy and resource requirements associated with the lipid extraction processes. Microalgae growth requires significant quantities of water, and the extraction of lipids involves the use of solvents, typically polar/non-polar co-solvent systems. Together, these factors affect the overall efficiency of the conversion process and, thus, the overall environmental and economic footprint, as measured through a life cycle assessment approach. One proposed option to improve the overall efficiency of the process is to substitute the traditional chloroform/methanol-based extraction process with a greener and more novel type of lipid extraction technology such as CO 2 expanded methanol, using a flow-through reactor (CXM). Through the development of an LCA model the current study aims to compare biodiesel production respectively using a conventional organic co-solvent-based extraction system (CHCl 3 – MeOH), a non-expanded methanol in a flow-through reactor (NCXM), and the proposed CXM approach. The comparison, based on three different LCA models, will provide an insight of the effects of the different energy performances of both CXM and NCXM lipid extractions respect to the conventional approach in terms of environmental impacts associated with one unit of biodiesel production. In the long term, the results will be used to identify the environmental ‘hot-spots’ associated with each process, and to explore the potential for improving novel CXM processes.

Abstract Biodiesel from microalgae is regarded as a green and renewable energy source; it is produced from non-food feedstock material, has a high quantity of free fatty acids per unit weight of dry matter, may be cultivated with relatively low land use requirements, and may be adapted to regions with growing economies. Nevertheless, microalgal-based biodiesel production systems are still far from being exploitable on a commercial level due to high energy and resource requirements associated with the lipid extraction processes. Microalgae growth requires significant quantities of water, and the extraction of lipids involves the use of solvents, typically polar/non-polar co-solvent systems. Together, these factors affect the overall efficiency of the conversion process and, thus, the overall environmental and economic footprint, as measured through a life cycle assessment approach. One proposed option to improve the overall efficiency of the process is to substitute the traditional chloroform/methanol-based extraction process with a greener and more novel type of lipid extraction technology such as CO 2 expanded methanol, using a flow-through reactor (CXM). Through the development of an LCA model the current study aims to compare biodiesel production respectively using a conventional organic co-solvent-based extraction system (CHCl 3 – MeOH), a non-expanded methanol in a flow-through reactor (NCXM), and the proposed CXM approach. The comparison, based on three different LCA models, will provide an insight of the effects of the different energy performances of both CXM and NCXM lipid extractions respect to the conventional approach in terms of environmental impacts associated with one unit of biodiesel production. In the long term, the results will be used to identify the environmental ‘hot-spots’ associated with each process, and to explore the potential for improving novel CXM processes.

Sustained policy support is necessary in order to drive a transition toward renewable energy (RE). The ability to realize RE policy objectives with minimal impact on policy goals outside of the RE domain is constrained by a range of geographic factors related to resource potential, the distribution of resources, land availability / suitability, the absorptive capacity of proximal infrastructure, and local socio-political acceptance. With this in mind, this paper provides a systematic review of how geographic information science and remote sensing techniques have been applied to reduce uncertainties surrounding renewable energy development, with emphasis on policy and planning needs. The concept of a 'geo-information infrastructure' is used to bring coherence and direction to this growing body of literature. The review highlights four underdeveloped research areas, including: resolving issues of scalar discordance through comprehensive analysis at local and regional scales; mapping interactions in space of multiple supply options to deliver more accurate and sophisticated estimates of RE potential in an area and to identify competitive and symbiotic land-use situations; using energy resource maps as primary inputs into the development of technology road-maps; and developing geographically explicit indicators which can signal priority areas for RE recovery based on social and environmental returns on investments. In each case, suggestions moving forward are provided. The paper identifies knowledge-based institutional networking as a pathway through which local and regional public authorities can be equipped with the resources necessary to build and mobilize a geo-information infrastructure.

Sustained policy support is necessary in order to drive a transition toward renewable energy (RE). The ability to realize RE policy objectives with minimal impact on policy goals outside of the RE domain is constrained by a range of geographic factors related to resource potential, the distribution of resources, land availability / suitability, the absorptive capacity of proximal infrastructure, and local socio-political acceptance. With this in mind, this paper provides a systematic review of how geographic information science and remote sensing techniques have been applied to reduce uncertainties surrounding renewable energy development, with emphasis on policy and planning needs. The concept of a 'geo-information infrastructure' is used to bring coherence and direction to this growing body of literature. The review highlights four underdeveloped research areas, including: resolving issues of scalar discordance through comprehensive analysis at local and regional scales; mapping interactions in space of multiple supply options to deliver more accurate and sophisticated estimates of RE potential in an area and to identify competitive and symbiotic land-use situations; using energy resource maps as primary inputs into the development of technology road-maps; and developing geographically explicit indicators which can signal priority areas for RE recovery based on social and environmental returns on investments. In each case, suggestions moving forward are provided. The paper identifies knowledge-based institutional networking as a pathway through which local and regional public authorities can be equipped with the resources necessary to build and mobilize a geo-information infrastructure.

AbstractRenewable fuel from the hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) pathway represents a promising short‐term option for reducing fossil fuel use in transportation. However, some life‐cycle assessments (LCAs) have shown that HEFA diesel and jet fuel may have higher life‐cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than the fossil fuels they replace. Many of these studies examined HEFA fuel derived from oilseed feedstocks. Here, results and methodology from 20 LCAs of HEFA fuel from oilseeds are reviewed in an effort to determine the sources of variability in the reported life‐cycle GHG emissions of HEFA fuels. Although there was a 61–63% reduction in median life cycle GHG emissions of HEFA biojet and renewable diesel compared to conventional petroleum fuels, this review highlights the importance of standardized methodologies for life‐cycle assessment (e.g., CORSIA, RSB) and indicates the need to prevent the conversion of forest land for biofuel production, as well as the potential opportunity for alternative oilseeds such as camelina and carinata as feedstocks to produce HEFA fuels with lower life‐cycle GHG emissions. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

AbstractRenewable fuel from the hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) pathway represents a promising short‐term option for reducing fossil fuel use in transportation. However, some life‐cycle assessments (LCAs) have shown that HEFA diesel and jet fuel may have higher life‐cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than the fossil fuels they replace. Many of these studies examined HEFA fuel derived from oilseed feedstocks. Here, results and methodology from 20 LCAs of HEFA fuel from oilseeds are reviewed in an effort to determine the sources of variability in the reported life‐cycle GHG emissions of HEFA fuels. Although there was a 61–63% reduction in median life cycle GHG emissions of HEFA biojet and renewable diesel compared to conventional petroleum fuels, this review highlights the importance of standardized methodologies for life‐cycle assessment (e.g., CORSIA, RSB) and indicates the need to prevent the conversion of forest land for biofuel production, as well as the potential opportunity for alternative oilseeds such as camelina and carinata as feedstocks to produce HEFA fuels with lower life‐cycle GHG emissions. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd