• Energy Research

Abstract Transcritical CO2 (TCO2) cycle systems have emerged as a promising power-generation technology in certain applications. In conventional TCO2-cycle system analyses reported in the literature, the turbine efficiency, which strongly determines the overall system performance, is generally assumed to be constant. This may lead to suboptimal designs and optimization results. In order to improve the accuracy and reliability of such system analyses and offer insight into how knowledge of these systems from earlier analyses can be interpreted, this paper presents a comprehensive model that couples TCO2-cycle calculations with preliminary turbine design based on the mean-line method. Turbine design parameters are optimized simultaneously to achieve the highest turbine efficiency, which replaces the constant turbine efficiency used in cycle calculations. A case study of heat recovery from an internal combustion engine (ICE) using a TCO2-cycle system with a radial-inflow turbine is then considered, with results revealing that the turbine efficiency is influenced by the system's operating conditions, which in turn has a significant effect on system performance in both thermodynamic and economic terms. A more generalized heat source is then considered to explore more broadly the role of the turbine in determining TCO2-cycle power-system performance. The more detailed turbine-design modelling approach allows errors of the order of up to 10–20% in various predictions to be avoided for steady-state calculations, and potentially of an even greater magnitude at off-design operation. The model allows quick preliminary designs of radial-inflow turbines and reasonable turbine performance predictions under various operating conditions, and can be a useful tool for more accurate and reliable thermo-economic studies of TCO2-cycle systems.

Abstract Transcritical CO2 (TCO2) cycle systems have emerged as a promising power-generation technology in certain applications. In conventional TCO2-cycle system analyses reported in the literature, the turbine efficiency, which strongly determines the overall system performance, is generally assumed to be constant. This may lead to suboptimal designs and optimization results. In order to improve the accuracy and reliability of such system analyses and offer insight into how knowledge of these systems from earlier analyses can be interpreted, this paper presents a comprehensive model that couples TCO2-cycle calculations with preliminary turbine design based on the mean-line method. Turbine design parameters are optimized simultaneously to achieve the highest turbine efficiency, which replaces the constant turbine efficiency used in cycle calculations. A case study of heat recovery from an internal combustion engine (ICE) using a TCO2-cycle system with a radial-inflow turbine is then considered, with results revealing that the turbine efficiency is influenced by the system's operating conditions, which in turn has a significant effect on system performance in both thermodynamic and economic terms. A more generalized heat source is then considered to explore more broadly the role of the turbine in determining TCO2-cycle power-system performance. The more detailed turbine-design modelling approach allows errors of the order of up to 10–20% in various predictions to be avoided for steady-state calculations, and potentially of an even greater magnitude at off-design operation. The model allows quick preliminary designs of radial-inflow turbines and reasonable turbine performance predictions under various operating conditions, and can be a useful tool for more accurate and reliable thermo-economic studies of TCO2-cycle systems.

Abstract Although district heat network schemes provide a pragmatic solution for reducing the environmental impact of urban energy systems, there are additional benefits that could arise from servicing electric vehicles. Using the electricity generated on-site to power electric vehicles can make district heating networks more economically feasible, while also increasing environmental benefits. This paper explores the potential integration of electric vehicle charging into large-scale district heating networks with the aim of increasing the value of the generated electricity and thereby improving the financial feasibility of such systems. A modelling approach is presented composed of a diverse range of distributed technologies that considers residential and commercial electric vehicle charging demands via agent-based modelling. An existing district heating network system in London was taken as a case study. The energy system was modelled as a mixed integer linear program and optimised for either profit maximisation or carbon dioxide emissions minimisation. Commercial electric vehicles provided the best alternative to increase revenue streams by about 11% against the current system configuration with emissions effectively unchanged. The research indicates that district heating network systems need to carefully analyse opportunities for transport electrification in order to improve the integration, and sustainability, of urban energy systems.

Abstract Although district heat network schemes provide a pragmatic solution for reducing the environmental impact of urban energy systems, there are additional benefits that could arise from servicing electric vehicles. Using the electricity generated on-site to power electric vehicles can make district heating networks more economically feasible, while also increasing environmental benefits. This paper explores the potential integration of electric vehicle charging into large-scale district heating networks with the aim of increasing the value of the generated electricity and thereby improving the financial feasibility of such systems. A modelling approach is presented composed of a diverse range of distributed technologies that considers residential and commercial electric vehicle charging demands via agent-based modelling. An existing district heating network system in London was taken as a case study. The energy system was modelled as a mixed integer linear program and optimised for either profit maximisation or carbon dioxide emissions minimisation. Commercial electric vehicles provided the best alternative to increase revenue streams by about 11% against the current system configuration with emissions effectively unchanged. The research indicates that district heating network systems need to carefully analyse opportunities for transport electrification in order to improve the integration, and sustainability, of urban energy systems.

Abstract In this paper, we develop a framework for designing optimal organic Rankine cycle (ORC) power systems that simultaneously considers both thermodynamic and economic objectives. This methodology relies on computer-aided molecular design (CAMD) techniques that allow the identification of an optimal working fluid during the thermo-economic optimization of the system. The SAFT-γ Mie equation of state is used to determine the necessary thermodynamic properties of the designed working fluids, with critical and transport properties estimated using empirical group-contribution methods. The framework is then applied to the design of sub-critical and non-recuperated ORC systems in different applications spanning a range of heat-source temperatures. When minimizing the specific investment cost (SIC) of these systems, it is found that the optimal molecular size of the working fluid is linked to the heat-source temperature, as expected, but also that the introduction of a minimum pinch point constraint that is commonly employed to account for inherent trade-offs between system performance and cost is not necessary. The optimal SICs of waste-heat ORC systems with heat-source temperatures of 150 °C, 250 °C and 350 °C are £10120, £4040 and £2910 per kW, when employing propane, 2-butane and 2-heptene as the working fluids, respectively. During a set of MINLP optimizations of the ORC systems with heat-source temperatures of 150 °C and 250 °C, it is found that 1,3-butadiene and 4-methyl-2-pentene are the best-performing working fluids, respectively, with SICs of £9640 per kW and £4000 per kW. These substances represent novel working fluids for ORC systems that cannot be determined a priori by specifying any working-fluid family or by following traditional methods of testing multiple fluids. Interestingly, the same molecules are identified in a multi-objective optimization considering both the total investment cost and net power output. These findings highlight the power of this approach as it enables the selection of novel working fluids while optimizing ORC systems using single or multiple thermo-economic performance indicators.

Abstract In this paper, we develop a framework for designing optimal organic Rankine cycle (ORC) power systems that simultaneously considers both thermodynamic and economic objectives. This methodology relies on computer-aided molecular design (CAMD) techniques that allow the identification of an optimal working fluid during the thermo-economic optimization of the system. The SAFT-γ Mie equation of state is used to determine the necessary thermodynamic properties of the designed working fluids, with critical and transport properties estimated using empirical group-contribution methods. The framework is then applied to the design of sub-critical and non-recuperated ORC systems in different applications spanning a range of heat-source temperatures. When minimizing the specific investment cost (SIC) of these systems, it is found that the optimal molecular size of the working fluid is linked to the heat-source temperature, as expected, but also that the introduction of a minimum pinch point constraint that is commonly employed to account for inherent trade-offs between system performance and cost is not necessary. The optimal SICs of waste-heat ORC systems with heat-source temperatures of 150 °C, 250 °C and 350 °C are £10120, £4040 and £2910 per kW, when employing propane, 2-butane and 2-heptene as the working fluids, respectively. During a set of MINLP optimizations of the ORC systems with heat-source temperatures of 150 °C and 250 °C, it is found that 1,3-butadiene and 4-methyl-2-pentene are the best-performing working fluids, respectively, with SICs of £9640 per kW and £4000 per kW. These substances represent novel working fluids for ORC systems that cannot be determined a priori by specifying any working-fluid family or by following traditional methods of testing multiple fluids. Interestingly, the same molecules are identified in a multi-objective optimization considering both the total investment cost and net power output. These findings highlight the power of this approach as it enables the selection of novel working fluids while optimizing ORC systems using single or multiple thermo-economic performance indicators.

Abstract In this paper, a promising heat engine technology capable of utilizing low grade heat is examined. Based on a two-phase thermofluidic oscillator concept, the novelty and advantage of this particular system lie in its use of phase change and its lack of reliance on inertia to sustain oscillations, though it is recognized that inertia will always be present in any physical manifestation of the engine. The system is analysed using lumped linearized one-dimensional network models, both with and without inertia, based on thermoacoustic principles and extending these to account for phase change. The gain (temperature difference between source and sink heat exchangers) and frequency at which marginal stability (desirable continuous oscillations) can be achieved is calculated. The effects of the load resistance (fluid drag) and fluid inertia, as well as of the flow resistance due the feedback valve on the marginal stability gain, frequency and exergetic efficiency of the system are investigated. It is found that an increase in feedback resistance leads to a need for a higher gain for oscillatory behaviour to be achieved. In addition, even though an increase in either the resistance or inertia in the load, or the feedback resistance at low values of these variables has almost no effect on the required gain and the oscillation frequency of the system, an increase in these variables can lead at higher values to increased gains and reduced frequencies. A reduced feedback resistance and greater load inertia can also lead to considerably higher efficiencies, while increasing the load resistance allows for an increase in efficiency until a maximum is reached, after which the efficiency decreases again. The validity of certain approximations made previously is considered, and it is shown that these must be made with care. The results from this study can be used for the improved design and optimization of such oscillators, and similar systems.

Abstract In this paper, a promising heat engine technology capable of utilizing low grade heat is examined. Based on a two-phase thermofluidic oscillator concept, the novelty and advantage of this particular system lie in its use of phase change and its lack of reliance on inertia to sustain oscillations, though it is recognized that inertia will always be present in any physical manifestation of the engine. The system is analysed using lumped linearized one-dimensional network models, both with and without inertia, based on thermoacoustic principles and extending these to account for phase change. The gain (temperature difference between source and sink heat exchangers) and frequency at which marginal stability (desirable continuous oscillations) can be achieved is calculated. The effects of the load resistance (fluid drag) and fluid inertia, as well as of the flow resistance due the feedback valve on the marginal stability gain, frequency and exergetic efficiency of the system are investigated. It is found that an increase in feedback resistance leads to a need for a higher gain for oscillatory behaviour to be achieved. In addition, even though an increase in either the resistance or inertia in the load, or the feedback resistance at low values of these variables has almost no effect on the required gain and the oscillation frequency of the system, an increase in these variables can lead at higher values to increased gains and reduced frequencies. A reduced feedback resistance and greater load inertia can also lead to considerably higher efficiencies, while increasing the load resistance allows for an increase in efficiency until a maximum is reached, after which the efficiency decreases again. The validity of certain approximations made previously is considered, and it is shown that these must be made with care. The results from this study can be used for the improved design and optimization of such oscillators, and similar systems.